Orbital Tumors

Česká verzia

Authors: P. Vachata ^1,2; L. Zikmund ³; J. Kozák ¹; F. Cihlář ⁴; D. Šulc ⁵; M. Sameš ^1,2
Authors place of work: Neurochirurgická klinika UJEP a Krajská zdravotní a. s., Masarykova nemocnice v Ústí nad Labem, o. z. ¹; Skull base center Class A, World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies, Ústí nad Labem ²; Oční klinika UJEP a Krajská zdravotní a. s., Masarykova nemocnice v Ústí nad Labem, o. z. ³; Radiodiagnostické oddělení, Krajská zdravotní a. s., Masarykova nemocnice v Ústí nad Labem, o. z. ⁴; Komplexní onkologické centrum, Radioterapeutické oddělení, Krajská zdravotní a. s., Masarykova nemocnice v Ústí nad Labem, o. z. ⁵
Published in the journal: Cesk Slov Neurol N 2015; 78/111(6): 617-638
Category: Minimonografie
doi: https://doi.org/10.14735/amcsnn2015617

Summary

Orbital tumors constitute a relatively rare and heterogeneous group of lesions, either originating in the orbit or with secondary extension into the bony orbital margins. Primary orbital tumors are scarcer and usually benign, while secondary tumors are usually malignant. Metastases may be found anywhere in the wall of the orbit or inside the orbit. The most common symptoms include exophtalmus, visual impairment and diplopia. CT in combination with MRI are the most useful in the diagnostic algorithm. Therapy aims for long-term management of tumor growth with focus on visual improvement or preservation. Monitoring, surgery, chemotherapy and radiation with respect to histology and staging are all used in combination as it is common in other groups of tumors. Over the past few decades, advances in radiodiagnostics, improved knowledge of the natural course of tumors, more accurate radiosurgical techniques and improved chemotherapy protocols have changed therapeutic algorithms as well as prognosis in many orbital tambours. Multidisciplinary approach in specialized centers shall ensure optimal treatment.

Key words:
orbit – orbital tumor – exophtalmus – orbitotomy

The authors declare they have no potential conflicts of interest concerning drugs, products, or services used in the study.

The Editorial Board declares that the manuscript met the ICMJE “uniform requirements” for biomedical papers.

Zdroje

1. Rubin PA, Remulla HD. Surgical methods and approaches in the treatment of orbital disease. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 1996; 6(1): 239–255.

2. Knapp H. A case of carcinoma of the outer sheath of the optic nerve, removed with preservation of the eyeball. Arch Ophthalmol Otol 1874; 106: 323–354.

3. Kronlein RU. Zur pathologie und operativen behandlung der dermoidcysten der orbita. Beitr Klin Chir 1889; 4: 149–163.

4. Dandy WE. Results following the transcranial operative attack on orbital tumors. Arch Ophthalmol 1941; 25: 191–216.

5. Frazier CH. An approach to the hypophysis through the anterior cranial fossa. Ann Surg 1913; 57(2): 145–150.

6. Norris JL, Cleasby GW. Endoscopic orbital surgery. Am J Ophthalmol 1981; 91(2): 249–252.

7. Taveras JL, Haik BG. Radiography of the eye and orbit: a historical overview. Surv Ophthalmol 1988; 32(5): 361–368.

8. Becker G, Jeremic B, Pitz S, Buchgeister M, Wilhelm H, Schiefer U et al. Stereotactic fractionated radiotherapy in patients with optic nerve sheath meningioma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2002; 54(5): 1422–1429.

9. Berman D, Miller NR. New concepts in the management of optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2006; 35(3): 168–174.

10. Packer RJ, Ater J, Allen J, Phillips P, Geyer R, Nicholson HS et al. Carboplatin and vincristine chemotherapy for children with newly diagnosed progressive low-grade gliomas. J Neurosurg 1997; 86(5): 747–754.

11. Packer RJ, Jakacki R, Horn M, Rood B, Vezina G, MacDonald T et al. Objective response of multiply recurrent low-grade gliomas to bevacizumab and irinotecan. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009; 52(7): 791–795. doi: 10.1002/ pbc.21935.

12. Pitz S, Becker G, Schiefer U, Wilhelm H, Jeremic B, Bamberg M et al. Stereotactic fractionated irradiation of optic nerve sheath meningioma: a new treatment alternative. Br J Ophthalmol 2002; 86(11): 1265–1268.

13. Reyes C, Mason E, Solares CA, Bush C, Carrau R.To preserve or not to preserve the orbit in paranasal sinus neoplasms: a meta-analysis. J Neurol Surg BSkull Base 2015; 76(2): 122–128. doi: 10.1055/ s-0034-1390403.

14. Otradovec J. Choroby očnice. Praha: Avicenum 1986.

15. Zide BM, Jelks GW. Surgical anatomy of the orbit. 1st ed. New York: Raven Press 1985.

16. Rhoton AL jr, Natori Y. The orbit and sellar region: microsurgical anatomy and operative approaches. 1st ed. New York: Thieme Medical 1996.

17. Dutton JJ. Atlas of clinical and surgical orbital anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Elsevier Saunders 2011.

18. Bejjani G, Maroon JC, Kennerdell JS. Orbital tumors. Philadelphia: Saunders 2001.

19. Darsaut TE, Lanzino G, Lopes MB, Newman S. An introductory overview of orbital tumors. Neurosurg Focus 2001; 10(5): 1–9.

20. Tailor TD, Gupta D, Dalley RW, Keene CD, Anzai Y. Orbital neoplasms in adults: clinical, radiologic, and pathologic review. Radiographics 2013; 33(6): 1739–1758. doi: 10.1148/ rg.336135502.

21. Volpe NJ, Gausas RE. Optic nerve and orbital tumors. Neurosurg Clin N Am 1999; 10(4): 699–715.

22. Howard GM. The orbit. Arch Ophthalmol 1968; 80(5): 667–680.

23. Khan SN, Sepahdari AR. Orbital masses: CT and MRI of common vascular lesions, benign tumors, and malignancies. Saudi J Ophthalmol 2012; 26(4): 373–383. doi: 10.1016/ j.sjopt.2012.08.001.

24. Peeters F, Kröger R, Verbeeten B jr, Verteege C. The value of computer tomography, orbital venography and carotid angiography in the diagnosis of exophthalmos. Radiol Clin (Basel) 1977; 46(6): 430–438.

25. Weisman RA, Kikkawa D, Moe KS, Osquthorpe JD. Orbital tumors. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2001; 34(6): 1157–1174.

26. Sirin S, Schlamann M, Metz KA, Bornfeld N, Schweiger B, Holdt M et al. High-resolution MRI using orbit surface coils for the evaluation of metastatic risk factors in 143 children with retinoblastoma: Part 1: MRI vs. histopathology. Neuroradiology 2015; 57(8): 805–814. doi: 10.1007/ s00234-015-1544-2.

27. Sirin S, Schlamann M, Metz KA, Bornfeld N, Schweiger B, Holdt M et al. High-resolution MRI using orbit surface coils for the evaluation of metastatic risk factors in 143 children with retinoblastoma: Part 2: new vs. old imaging concept. Neuroradiology 2015; 57(8): 815–824. doi: 10.1007/ s00234-015-1538-0.

28. Bangiyev L, Raz E, Block TK, Hagiwara M, Wu X, Yu E et al. Evaluation of the orbit using contrast-enhanced radial 3D fat-suppressed T weighted gradient echo (Radial-VIBE) sequence. Br J Radiol 2015; 88(1054): 20140863. doi: 10.1259/ bjr.20140863.

29. Tsiapa I, Tsilimbaris MK, Papadaki E, Bouziotis P, Pallikaris IG, Karantanas AH et al. High resolution MR eye protocol optimization: comparison between 3D-CISs, 3D-PSIF and 3D-VIBE sequences. Phys Med 2015; 10(15): 1120–1129. doi: 10.1016/ j.ejmp.2015.03.009.

30. Krohn-Hansen D, Zhang L, Haaskjold E, Meling TR, Nicolaissen B, Sjaastad I. Surgical anatomy of the superior orbit on ultra-high-resolution MRI at 9.4 Tesla. J Plast Surg Hand Surg 2015; 1: 1–5.

31. Aletich V, Misra M, Shownkeen H, Camras LR, Debrun G. Evaluation and endovascular treatment of juxtaorbital vascular anomalies. Radiol Clin North Am 1999; 37(1): 123–133.

32. Hui KH, Pfeiffer ML, Esmaeli B. Value of positron emission tomography/ computed tomography in diagnosis and staging of primary ocular and orbital tumors. Saudi J Ophthalmol 2012; 26(4): 365–371. doi: 10.1016/ j.sjopt.2012.08.008.

33. Astrup J. Natural history and clinical management of optic pathway glioma. Br J Neurosurg 2003; 17(4): 327–335.

34. Egan RA, Lessell S. A contribution to the natural history of optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Arch Ophthalmol 2002; 120(11): 1505–1508.

35. Tow SL, Chandela S, Miller NR, Avellino AM.Long-term outcome in children with gliomas of the anterior visual pathway. Pediatr Neurol 2003; 28(4): 262–270.

36. Leonard JR, Perry A, Rubin JB, King AA, Chicoine MR, Gutmann DH. The role of surgical biopsy in the diagnosis of glioma in individuals with neurofibromatosis 1. Neurology 2006; 67(8): 1509–1512.

37. Bernardini FP, Bazzan M. Lymphoproliferative disease of the orbit. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2007; 18(5): 398–401.

38. Leber KA, Berglöff J, Pendl G. Dose-response tolerance of the visual pathways and cranial nerves of the cavernous sinus to stereotactic radiosurgery. J Neurosurg 1998; 88(1): 43–50.

39. Tishler RB, Loeffler JS, Lunsford LD, Duma C, Alexander E jr, Kooy HM et al. Tolerance of cranial nerves of the cavernous sinus to radiosurgery. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1993; 27(2): 215–221.

40. Stafford SL, Pollock BE, Leavitt JA, Foote RL, Brown PD, Link MJ et al. A study on the radiation tolerance of the optic nerves and chiasm after stereotactic radiosurgery. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2003; 55(5): 1177–1181.

41. Mayo C, Martel MK, Marks LB, Flickinger J, Nam J, Kirkpatrick J. Radiation dose-volume effects of optic nerves and chiasm. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2010; 76 (Suppl 3): S28–S35. doi: 10.1016/ j.ijrobp.2009.07.1753.

42. Eddleman CS, Liu JK. Optic nerve sheath meningioma: current diagnosis and treatment. Neurosurg Focus 2007; 23(5): E4.

43. Jo KI, Im YS, Kong DS, Seol HJ, Nam DH, Kim YD et al. Multisession Gamma Knife surgery for benign orbital tumors. J Neurosurg 2012; 117 (Suppl): 102–107. doi: 10.3171/ 2012.7.GKS12780.

44. Kortmann RD, Timmermann B, Taylor RE, Scarzello G, Plasswilm L, Paulsen F et al. Current and future strategies in radiotherapy of childhood low-grade glioma of the brain. Part II: treatment-related late toxicity. Strahlenther Onkol 2003; 179(9): 585–597.

45. Kortmann RD, Timmermann B, Taylor RE, Scarzello G, Plasswilm L, Paulsen F et al. Current and future strategies in radiotherapy of childhood low-grade glioma of the brain. Part I: treatment modalities of radiation therapy. Strahlenther Onkol 2003; 179(8): 509–520.

46. Landert M, Baumert BG, Bosch MM, Lutolf UM, Landau K. The visual impact of fractionated stereotactic conformal radiotherapy on seven eyes with optic nerve sheath meningiomas. J Neuroophthalmol 2005; 25(2): 86–91.

47. Liu D, Xu D, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Li Y, Liu X et al. Long-term results of Gamma Knife surgery for optic nerve sheath meningioma. J Neurosurg 2010; 113 (Suppl): 28–33.

48. Richards JC, Roden D, Harper CS. Management of sight-threatening optic nerve sheath meningioma with fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2005; 33(2): 137–141.

49. Smith JL, Vuksanovic MM, Yates BM, Bienfang DC. Radiation therapy for primary optic nerve meningiomas. J Clin Neuroophthalmol 1981; 1(2): 85–99.

50. Turbin RE, Pokorny K. Diagnosis and treatment of orbital optic nerve sheath meningioma. Cancer Control 2004; 11(5): 334–341.

51. Xu D, Liu D, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Li Y, Liu X et al. Gamma Knife surgery in the management of orbital tumors. J Neurosurg 2010; 113 (Suppl): 34–38.

52. Cockerham KP, Bejjani GK, Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC. Surgery for orbital tumors. Part II: transorbital approaches. Neurosurg Focus 2001; 10(5): E3.

53. Bejjani GK, Cockerham KP, Kennerdel JS, Maroon JC. A reappraisal of surgery for orbital tumors. Part I: extraorbital approaches. Neurosurg Focus 2001; 10(5): E2.

54. Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC, Malton ML. Surgical approaches to orbital tumors. Clin Plast Surg 1988; 15(2): 273–282.

55. Maroon JC, Kennerdell JS. Surgical approaches to the orbit. Indications and techniques. J Neurosurg 1984; 60(6): 1226–1235.

56. Novák Z, Pábl L, Nádvorník P, Chrastina J. Stereotaktická biopsie nádoru očnice. Čes Slov Oftal 1997; 53(4): 220–222.

57. Berke RN. A modified Krönlein operation. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1953; 51: 193–231.

58. Galbraith JE, Sullivan JH. Decompression of the perioptic meninges for relief of papilledema. Am J Ophthalmol 1973; 76(5): 687–692.

59. Lipina R, Matoušek P, Paleček T, Komínek P. Rozšířený transnaazální endoskopický přístup k nádorům lebeční spodiny a očnice. Cesk Slov Neurol N 2012; 75/ 108(3): 326–332.

60. Matoušek P, Lipina R, Komínek P, Šmehlík P, Krejčí T, Syrovátka J et al. Transnazální endoskopická chirurgie nádorů očnice. Čes Slov Oftal 2012; 68(5): 202–206.

61. Netuka D, Masopust V, Belšán T, Profantová N, Be-neš V. Endoscopic endonasal resection of medial orbital lesions with intraoperative MRI. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2013; 155(3): 455–461. doi: 10.1007/ s00701-012-1585-9.

62. Paluzzi A, Gardner PA, Fernandez-Miranda JC, Tormenti MJ, Stefko ST, Snyderman CH et al. „Round-the-Clock“ Surgical Access to the Orbit. J Neurol Surg B Skull Base 2015; 76(1): 12–24. doi: 10.1055/ s-0033-1360580.

63. Hassler WE, Meyer B, Rohde V, Unsold R. Pterional approach to the contralateral orbit. Neurosurgery 1994; 34(3): 552–524.

64. Raveh J, Laedrach K, Speiser M, Chen J, Vuillemin T, Seiler R et al. The subcranial approach for fronto-orbital and anteroposterior skull-base tumors. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1993; 119(4): 385–393.

65. Chynoranský M, Furdová A, Oláh Z. Exenterácie očnice. Čes Slov Oftal 1994; 50(2): 92–97.

66. Krásný J, Novák V, Otradovec J. Orbitální protéza po exenteraci očnice se zachováním víček a spojivkového vaku. Čes Slov Oftal 2006; 62(2): 94–99.

67. Rootman JCB. Orbital surgery: a conceptual approach. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins 2014.

68. Baino F, Perero S, Ferraris S, Miola M, Balagna C, Verné E et al. Biomaterials for orbital implants and ocular prostheses: overview and future prospects. Acta Biomater 2014; 10(3): 1064–1087. doi: 10.1016/ j.actbio.2013.12.014.

69. Modugno A, Mantelli F, Sposato S, Moretti C, Lambiase A, Bonini S. Ocular prostheses in the last century: a retrospective analysis of 8,018 patients. Eye (Lond) 2013; 27(7): 865–870. doi: 10.1038/ eye.2013.97.

70. Gao D, Fei Z, Jiang X, Zhang X, Liu W, Fu L et al. The microsurgical treatment of cranio-orbital tumors assisted by intraoperative electrophysiologic monitoring and neuronavigation. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2012; 114(7): 891–896. doi: 10.1016/ j.clineuro.2012.01.050.

71. Wilde F, Schramm A. Intraoperative imaging in orbital and midface reconstruction. Facial Plast Surg 2014; 30(5): 545–553. doi: 10.1055/ s-0034-1393700.

72. López JR. Neurophysiologic intraoperative monitoring of the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves. J Clin Neurophysiol 2011; 28(6): 543–550. doi: 10.1097/ WNP.0b013e31823da47e.

73. Dale EL, Strait TA, Sargent LA. Orbital reconstruction for pulsatile exophthalmos secondary to sphenoid wing dysplasia. Ann Plast Surg 2014; 72(6): S107–S111. doi: 10.1097/ SAP.0000000000000090.

74. Castillo BV jr, Kaufman L. Pediatric tumors of the eye and orbit. Pediatr Clin North Am 2003; 50(1): 149–172.

75. Bullock JD, Goldberg SH, Rakes SM. Orbital tumors in children. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 1989; 5(1): 13–16.

76. Shields JA, Bakewell B, Augsburger JJ, Donoso LA, Bernardino V. Space-occupying orbital masses in children. A review of 250 consecutive biopsies. Ophthalmology 1986; 93(3): 379–384.

77. Shields JA, Shields CL, Scartozzi R. Survey of 1,264 patients with orbital tumors and simulating lesions: The 2002 Montgomery Lecture, part 1. Ophthalmology 2004; 111(5): 997–1008.

78. Shamji MF, Benoit BG. Syndromic and sporadic pediatric optic pathway gliomas: review of clinical and histopathological differences and treatment implications. Neurosurg Focus 2007; 23(5): E3.

79. Zoeller GK, Brathwaite CD, Sandberg DI. Malignant transformation of an optic pathway glioma without prior radiation therapy. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2010; 5(5): 507–510. doi: 10.3171/ 2009.12.PEDS09173.

80. Chutorian AM, Schwartz JF, Evans RA, Carter S. Optic gliomas in children. Neurology 1964; 14: 83–95.

81. Russell DS, Rubinstein LJ. Pathology of tumours of the nervous system. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1989.

82. Avery RA, Fisher MJ, Liu GT. Optic pathway gliomas. J Neuroophthalmol 2011; 31(3): 269–278. doi: 10.1097/ WNO.0b013e31822aef82.

83. Binning MJ, Liu JK, Kestle JR, Brockmeyer DL, Walker ML. Optic pathway gliomas: a review. Neurosurg Focus 2007; 23(5): E2.

84. Piccirilli M, Lenzi J, Delfinis C, Trasimeni G, Salvati M, Raco A. Spontaneous regression of optic pathways gliomas in three patients with neurofibromatosis type I and critical review of the literature. Childs Nerv Syst 2006; 22(10): 1332–1337.

85. Rozen WM, Joseph S, Lo PA. Spontaneous regression of low-grade gliomas in pediatric patients without neurofibromatosis. Pediatr Neurosurg 2008; 44(4): 324–328. doi: 10.1159/ 000134925.

86. Gajjar A, Bhargava R, Jenkins JJ, Heideman R, Sanford RA, Langston JW et al. Low-grade astrocytoma with neuraxis dissemination at diagnosis. J Neurosurg 1995; 83(1): 67–71.

87. Listernick R, Ferner RE, Liu GT, Gutmann DH. Optic pathway gliomas in neurofibromatosis 1: controversies and recommendations. Ann Neurol 2007; 61(3): 189–198.

88. Hernáiz Driever P, von Hornstein S, Pietsch T, Kortmann R, Warmuth-Metz M, Emser A et al. Natural history and management of low-grade glioma in NF-1 children. J Neurooncol 2010; 100(2): 199–207. doi: 10.1007/ s11060-010-0159-z.

89. Otradovec J. Gliomy optiku chiasmatu (klinický obraz a diagnostika). Čs Oftal 1976; 32(1): 1–12.

90. Dodge HW jr, Love JG, Craig WM, Dockerty MB, Kearns TP, Holman CB et al. Gliomas of the optic nerves. AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1958; 79(6): 607–621.

91. Taylor T, Jaspan T, Milano G, Gregson R, Parker T, Ritzmann T et al. Radiological classification of optic pathway gliomas: experience of a modified functional classification system. Br J Radiol 2008; 81(970): 761–766. doi: 10.1259/ bjr/ 65246351.

92. McCullough DC, Epstein F. Optic pathway tumors. A review with proposals for clinical staging. Cancer 1985; 56 (Suppl 7): 1789–1791.

93. Hollander MD, FitzPatrick M, O‘Connor SG, Flanders AE, Tartaglino LM. Optic gliomas. Radiol Clin North Am 1999; 37(1): 59–71.

94. Jost SC, Ackerman JW, Garbow JR, Manwaring LP, Gutmann DH, McKinstry RC. Diffusion-weighted and dynamic contrast-enhanced imaging as markers of clinical behavior in children with optic pathway glioma. Pediatr Radiol 2008; 38(12): 1293–1239. doi: 10.1007/ s00247-008-1003-x.

95. Weizman L, Ben Sira L, Joskowicz L, Constantini S, Precel R, Shofty B et al. Automatic segmentation, internal classification, and follow-up of optic pathway gliomas in MRI. Med Image Anal 2012; 16(1): 177–188. doi: 10.1016/ j.media.2011.07.001.

96. Shofty B, Weizman L, Joskowicz L, Constantini S, Kesler A, Ben-Bashat D et al. MRI internal segmentation of optic pathway gliomas: clinical implementation of a novel algorithm. Childs Nerv Syst 2011; 27(8): 1265–1272. doi: 10.1007/ s00381-011-1436-7.

97. Nicolin G, Parkin P, Mabbott D, Hargrave D, Bartels U, Tabori U et al. Natural history and outcome of optic pathway gliomas in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009; 53(7): 1231–1237. doi: 10.1002/ pbc.22198.

98. Shofty B, Ben-Sira L, Freedman S, Yalon M, Dvir R, Weintraub M et al. Visual outcome following chemotherapy for progressive optic pathway gliomas. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2011; 57(3): 481–485. doi: 10.1002/ pbc.22-967.

99. Fouladi M, Wallace D, Langston JW, Mulhern R, Rose SR, Gajjar A et al. Survival and functional outcome of children with hypothalamic/ chiasmatic tumors. Cancer 2003; 97(4): 1084–1092.

100. Shofty B, Ben-Sira L, Kesler A, Constantini S. Optic pathway gliomas. In: Albright AL, Pollack IF, Adelson PD (eds). Principles and practice of pediatric neurosurgery. 3rd ed. New York: Thieme 2015.

101. Fisher BJ, Leighton CC, Vujovic O, Macdonald DR, Stitt L. Results of a policy of surveillance alone after surgical management of pediatric low grade gliomas. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2001; 51(3): 704–710.

102. Beyer RA, Paden P, Sobel DF, Flynn FG. Moyamoya pattern of vascular occlusion after radiotherapy for glioma of the optic chiasm. Neurology 1986; 36(9): 1173–1178.

103. Sharif S, Ferner R, Birch JM, Gillespie JE, Gattamaneni HR, Baser ME et al. Second primary tumors in neurofibromatosis 1 patients treated for optic glioma: substantial risks after radiotherapy. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24(16): 2570–2575.

104. Merchant TE, Hua CH, Shukla H, Ying X, Nill S, Oelfke U. Proton versus photon radiotherapy for common pediatric brain tumors: comparison of models of dose characteristics and their relationship to cognitive function. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008; 51(1): 110–117. doi: 10.1002/ pbc.21530.

105. Kwon Y, Bae JS, Kim JM, Lee DH, Kim SY, Ahn JS et al. Visual changes after gamma knife surgery for optic nerve tumors. Report of three cases. J Neurosurg 2005; 102 (Suppl): 143–146.

106. Hug EB, Muenter MW, Archambeau JO, DeVries A, Liwnicz B, Loredo LN et al. Conformal proton radiation therapy for pediatric low-grade astrocytomas. Strahlenther Onkol 2002; 178(1): 10–17.

107. Ahn Y, Cho BK, Kim SK, Chung YN, Lee CS, Kim IH et al. Optic pathway glioma: outcome and prognostic factors in a surgical series. Childs Nerv Syst 2006; 22(9): 1136–1142.

108. Wright JE, Call NB, Liaricos S. Primary optic nerve meningioma. Br J Ophthalmol 1980; 64(8): 553–558.

109. Dutton JJ. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Surv Ophthalmol 1992; 37(3): 167–183.

110. Castel A, Boschi A, Renard L, De Potter P. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas: clinical features, functional prognosis and controversial treatment. Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol 2000; 275: 73–78.

111. Otradovec J, Votočková J. Primární meningeomy očnice (meningeomy optiku). Čs Oftal 1973; 29(3): 221–231.

112. Schick U, Dott U, Hassler W. Surgical management of meningiomas involving the optic nerve sheath. J Neurosurg 2004; 101(6): 951–959.

113. Misra S, Misra N, Gogri P, Mehta R. A rare case of bilateral optic nerve sheath meningioma. Indian J Ophthalmol 2014; 62(6): 728–730. doi: 10.4103/ 0301-4738.136238.

114. Trobe JD, Glaser JS, Post JD, Page LK. Bilateral optic canal meningiomas: a case report. Neurosurgery 1978; 3(1): 68–74.

115. Carrasco JR, Penne RB. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas and advanced treatment options. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2004; 15(5): 406–410.

116. Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC, Malton M, Warren FA. The management of optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Am J Ophthalmol 1988; 106(4): 450–457.

117. Kim JW, Rizzo JF, Lessell S. Controversies in the management of optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2005; 45(4): 15–23.

118. Wright JE, McNab AA, McDonald WI. Primary optic nerve sheath meningioma. Br J Ophthalmol 1989; 73(12): 960–966.

119. Killer HE, Laeng HR, Flammer J, Groscurth P. Architecture of arachnoid trabeculae, pillars, and septa in the subarachnoid space of the human optic nerve: anatomy and clinical considerations. Br J Ophthalmol 2003; 87(6): 777–781.

120. Sheikh BY, Siqueira E, Dayel F. Meningioma in children: a report of nine cases and a review of the literature. Surg Neurol 1996; 45(4): 328–435.

121. Liu JK, Forman S, Moorthy CR, Benzil DL. Update on treatment modalities for optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Neurosurg Focus 2003; 14(5): e7.

122. Sibony PA, Krauss HR, Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC, Slamovits TL. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Clinical manifestations. Ophthalmology 1984; 91(11): 1313–1326.

123. Mafee MF, Goodwin J, Dorodi S. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Role of MR imaging. Radiol Clin North Am 1999; 37(1): 37–58.

124. Lindblom B, Truwit CL, Hoyt WF. Optic nerve sheath meningioma. Definition of intraorbital, intracanalicular, and intracranial components with magnetic resonance imaging. Ophthalmology 1992; 99(4): 560–566.

125. Kanamalla US. The optic nerve tram-track sign. Radiology 2003; 227(3): 718–719.

126. Turbin RE, Thompson CR, Kennerdell JS, Cockerham KP, Kupersmith MJ. A long-term visual outcome comparison in patients with optic nerve sheath meningioma managed with observation, surgery, radiotherapy, or surgery and radiotherapy. Ophthalmology 2002; 109(5): 890–899.

127. Saeed P, Rootman J, Nugent RA, White VA, Mackenzie IR, Koornneef L. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Ophthalmology 2003; 110(10): 2019–2030.

128. Jeremic B, Pitz S. Primary optic nerve sheath meningioma: stereotactic fractionated radiation therapy as an emerging treatment of choice. Cancer 2007; 110(4): 714–722.

129. Fineman MS, Augsburger JJ. A new approach to an old problem. Surv Ophthalmol 1999; 43(6): 519–524.

130. Mark LE, Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC, Rosenbaum AE, Heinz R, Johnson BL. Microsurgical removal of a primary intraorbital meningioma. Am J Ophthalmol 1978; 86(5): 704–709.

131. Roser F, Nakamura M, Martini-Thomas R, Samii M, Tatagiba M. The role of surgery in meningiomas involving the optic nerve sheath. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2006; 108(5): 470–476.

132. Delfini R, Missori P, Tarantino R, Ciapetta P, Cantore G. Primary benign tumors of the orbital cavity: comparative data in a series of patients with optic nerve glioma, sheath meningioma, or neurinoma. Surg Neurol 1996; 45(2): 147–153.

133. Ito M, Ishizawa A, Miyaoka M, Sato K, Ishii S. Intraorbital meningiomas. Surgical management and role of radiation therapy. Surg Neurol 1988; 29(6): 448–453.

134. Lee AG, Woo SY, Miller NR, Safran AB, Grant WH, Butler EB. Improvement in visual function in an eye with a presumed optic nerve sheath meningioma after treatment with three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy. J Neuroophthalmol 1996; 16(4): 247–251.

135. Cantore WA. Neural orbital tumors. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2000; 11(5): 367–371.

136. Messmer EP, Camara J, Boniuk M, Font RL. Amputation neuroma of the orbit. Report of two cases and review of the literature. Ophthalmology 1984; 91(11): 1420–1423.

137. Carroll GS, Haik BG, Fleming JC, Weiss RA, Mafee MF. Peripheral nerve tumors of the orbit. Radiol Clin North Am 1999; 37(1): 195–202.

138. De Potter P, Shields CL, Shields JA, Rao VM, Eagle RC jr, Trachtenberg WM. The CT and MRI features of an unusual case of isolated orbital neurofibroma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 1992; 8(3): 221–227.

139. Garg R, Dhawan A, Gupta N, D‘souza P. A rare case of benign isolated schwannoma in the inferior orbit. Indian J Ophthalmol 2008; 56(6): 514–515.

140. Wang Y, Xiao LH. Orbital schwannomas: findings from magnetic resonance imaging in 62 cases. Eye (Lond) 2008; 22(8): 1034–1039.

141. Xian J, Zhang Z, Wang Z, Li J, Yang B, Chen Q et al. Evaluation of MR imaging findings differentiating cavernous haemangiomas from schwannomas in the orbit. Eur Radiol 2010; 20(9): 2221–2228. doi: 10.1007/ s00330-010-1774-y.

142. Cockerham KP, Cockerham GC, Stutzman R, Hidayat AA, Depper MH, Turbin RE et al. The clinical spectrum of schwannomas presenting with visual dysfunction: a clinico-pathologic study of three cases. Surv Ophthalmol 1999; 44(3): 226–234.

143. Khwarg SI, Lucarelli MJ, Lemke BN, Smith ME, Albert DM. Ancient schwannoma of the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol 1999; 117(2): 262–264.

144. Bhatnagar AK, Gerszten PC, Ozhasaglu C, Vogel WJ, Kalnicki S, Welch WC et al. CyberKnife frameless radiosurgery for the treatment of extracranial benign tumors. Technol Cancer Res Treat 2005; 4(5): 571–576.

145. Goh AS, Kim YD, Woo KI, Lee JI. Benign orbital apex tumors treated with multisession gamma knife radiosurgery. Ophthalmology 2013; 120(3): 635–641. doi: 10.1016/ j.ophtha.2012.08.015.

146. Hayashi M, Chernov M, Tamura N, Yomo S, Ochiai T, Nagai M et al. Gamma knife surgery for abducent nerve schwannoma. Report of 4 cases. J Neurosurg 2010; 113 (Suppl): 136–143.

147. Kim BS, Im YS, Woo KI, Kim YD, Lee JI. Multisession Gamma Knife Radiosurgery for Orbital Apex Tumors. World Neurosurg 2015; 84(4): 1005–1013. doi: 10.1016/ j.wneu.2015.04.042.

148. Kiratli H, Yildiz S, Soylemezoglu F. Neurofibromatosis type 2: optic nerve sheath meningioma in one orbit, intramuscular schwannoma in the other. Orbit 2008; 27(6): 451–454. doi: 10.1080/ 01676830802350356.

149. Aydin MD, Yildirim U, Gundogdu C, Dursun O, Uysal HH, Ozdikici M. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor of the orbit: case report and literature review. Skull Base 2004; 14(2): 109–113.

150. Baran J, Falek A, Laskowski A, Sxeniuta A. Malignant schwannoma of the orbit in a 91-year old woman. Otolaryngol Pol 1995; 49 (Suppl 20): 494–497.

151. Erzurum SA, Melen O, Lissner G, Friedman DI, Sadun A, Feldon SE et al. Orbital malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Treatment with surgical resection and radiation therapy. J Clin Neuroophthalmol 1993; 13(1): 1–7.

152. Fisher BJ, Dennis KE. Malignant epithelioid cranial nerve sheath tumor: case report of a radiation response. J Neurooncol 2006; 78(2): 173–177.

153. Chibbaro S, Herman P, Povlika M, George B. Malignant trigeminal schwannoma extending into the anterior skull base. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2008; 150(6): 599–604. doi: 10.1007/ s00701-008-1563-4.

154. Miliaras G, Tsitsopoulos PP, Asproudis I, Tsekeris P, Polyzoidis K. Malignant orbital schwannoma with massive intracranial recurrence. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2008; 150(12): 1291–1294. doi: 10.1007/ s00701-008-0159-3.

155. Romero-Rojas AE, Diaz-Pérez JA, Lozano-Castillo A. Malignant peripheric nerve sheath tumor of the orbit: first description of orbital location in a patient with NF1. Neurocirugia (Astur) 2010; 21(1): 37–45.

156. González-Orús Álvarez-Morujo R, García Leal R, Lasso Vázquez JM, Scola Yurrita B. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumour of the infra-orbital nerve. Neurocirugia (Astur) 2014; 25(5): 240–243. doi: 10.1016/ j.neucir.2014.02.002.

157. Lyons CJ, McNab AA, Garner A, Wright JE. Orbital malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours. Br J Ophthalmol 1989; 73(9): 731–738.

158. D‘Agostino AN, Soule EH, Miller RH. Sarcomas of the peripheral nerves and somatic soft tissues associated with multiple neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen‘s disease). Cancer 1963; 16: 1015–1027.

159. Wanebo JE, Malik JM, VandenBerg SR, Wanebo HJ, Driesen N, Persing JA. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. A clinicopathologic study of 28 cases. Cancer 1993; 71(4): 1247–1253.

160. Ducatman BS, Scheithauer BW, Piepgras DG, Reiman HM, Ilstrup DM. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. A clinicopathologic study of 120 cases. Cancer 1986; 57(10): 2006–2021.

161. Aguiar Vitacca S, Sarrazin D, Henry-Amar M, Spielmann M, Genin J, Bernheim A et al. Neurosarcoma associated with Von Recklinghausen disease: apropos of 25 cases observed at the Gustave Roussy Institute from 1967 to 1990. Bull Cancer 1992; 79(1): 101–112.

162. Bonavolontà G, Strianese D, Grassi P, Comune C, Tranfa F, Uccello G et al. An analysis of 2,480 space-occupying lesions of the orbit from 1976 to 2011. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2013; 29(2): 79–86. doi: 10.1097/ IOP.0b013e31827a7622.

163. Char DH. Management of orbital tumors. Mayo Clin Proc 1993; 68(11): 1081–1096.

164. Lowe LH, Marchant TC, Rivard DC, Scherbel AJ. Vascular malformations: classification and terminology the radiologist needs to know. Semin Roentgenol 2012; 47(2): 106–117. doi: 10.1053/ j.ro.2011.11.002.

165. Yamasaki T, Handa H, Yamashita J, Paine JT, Tashiro Y, Uno A et al. Intracranial and orbital cavernous angiomas. A review of 30 cases. J Neurosurg 1986; 64(2): 197–208.

166. Sarraf D, Payne AM, Kitchen ND, Sehmi KS, Downes SM, Bird AC. Familial cavernous hemangioma: an expanding ocular spectrum. Arch Ophthalmol 2000; 118(7): 969–973.

167. Di Tommaso L, Scarpellini F, Salvi F, Ragazzini T, Foschini MP. Progesterone receptor expression in orbital cavernous hemangiomas. Virchows Arch 2000; 436(3): 284–288.

168. Henderson JW, Farrow GM, Garrity JA. Clinical course of an incompletely removed cavernous hemangioma of the orbit. Ophthalmology 1990; 97(5): 625–628.

169. Orcutt JC, Wulc AE, Mills RP, Smith CH. Asymptomatic orbital cavernous hemangiomas. Ophthalmology 1991; 98(8): 1257–1260.

170. Harris GJ, Jakobiec FA. Cavernous hemangioma of the orbit. J Neurosurg 1979; 51(2): 219–228.

171. Hejazi N, Classen R, Hassler W. Orbital and cerebral cavernomas: comparison of clinical, neuroimaging, and neuropathological features. Neurosurg Rev 1999; 22(1): 28–33.

172. Ansari SA, Mafee MF. Orbital cavernous hemangioma: role of imaging. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2005; 15(1): 137–158.

173. Mafee MF, Putterman A, Valvassori GE, Campos M, Capek V. Orbital space-occupying lesions: role of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. An analysis of 145 cases. Radiol Clin North Am 1987; 25(3): 529–559.

174. Scheuerle AF, Steiner HH, Kolling G, Kunze S, Aschoff A. Treatment and long-term outcome of patients with orbital cavernomas. Am J Ophthalmol 2004; 138(2): 237–244.

175. Zenobii M, Galzio RJ, Lucantoni D, Caffagni E, Magliani V. Spontaneous intraorbital hemorrhage caused by cavernous angioma of the orbit. J Neurosurg Sci 1984; 28(1): 37–40.

176. Khan AA, Niranjan A, Kano H, Kondziolka D, Flickinger JC, Lunsford LD. Stereotactic radiosurgery for cavernous sinus or orbital hemangiomas. Neurosurgery 2009; 65(5): 914–918. doi: 10.1227/ 01.NEU.0000356987.98197.71.

177. Liu X, Xu D, Zhang Y, Liu D, Song G. Gamma knife surgery in patients harboring orbital cavernous hemangiomas that were diagnosed on the basis of imaging findings. J Neurosurg 2010; 113 (Suppl): 39–43.

178. Haik BG, Karcioglu ZA, Gordon RA, Pechous BP. Capillary hemangioma (infantile periocular hemangioma). Surv Ophthalmol 1994; 38(5): 399–426.

179. Haywood RM, Monk BE, Mahaffey PJ. The treatment of early cutaneous capillary haemangiomata (strawberry naevi) with the tunable dye laser. Br J Plast Surg 2000; 53(4): 302–307.

180. Kushner BJ. The treatment of periorbital infantile hemangioma with intralesional corticosteroid. Plast Reconstr Surg 1985; 76(4): 517–526.

181. Gondová, G, Sejnová D, Hornová J, Elíz ová I, Gerinec A. Liečba kapilárního hemangiomu orbity betablokátormi. Folia Strabol Neuroophtalmol 2009; 10 (Suppl 1): 82–83.

182. Krásný J, Baráková D; Chodounský Z, Šach J. Lymfangiom orbitopalpebrální oblasti. Čes Slov Oftal 2014; 70(4): 152–159.

183. Iliff WJ, Green WR. Orbital lymphangiomas. Ophthalmology 1979; 86(5): 914–929.

184. Shields JA, Bakewell B, Augsburger JJ, Flanagan JC. Classification and incidence of space-occupying lesions of the orbit. A survey of 645 biopsies. Arch Ophthalmol 1984; 102(11): 1606–1611.

185. Volpe NJ, Jakobiec FA. Pediatric orbital tumors. Int Ophthalmol Clin 1992; 32(1): 201–221.

186. Vachharajani A, Paes B. Orbital lymphangioma with non-contiguous cerebral arteriovenous malformation, manifesting with thrombocytopenia (Kasabach-Merritt syndrome) and intracerebral hemorrhage. Acta Paediatr 2002; 91(1): 98–99.

187. Eiferman RA, Gushard RH. Chocolate cysts of the orbit. Ann Ophthalmol 1986; 18(4): 156–157.

188. Sires BS, Goins CR, Anderson RL, Holds JB. Systemic corticosteroid use in orbital lymphangioma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2001; 17(2): 85–90.

189. Pacheco LF, Fernandes BF, Miyamoto C, Maloney SC, Arthurs B, Burnier MN jr. Rapid growth of an orbital hemangiopericytoma with atypical histopathological findings. Clin Ophthalmol 2014; 8: 31–33. doi: 10.2147/ OPTH.S47901.

190. Billings KR, Fu YS, Calcaterra TC, Sercarz JA. Hemangiopericytoma of the head and neck. Am J Otolaryngol 2000; 21(4): 238–243.

191. Henderson JW, Farrow GM. Primary orbital hemangiopericytoma. An aggressive and potentiallymalignant neoplasm. Arch Ophthalmol 1978; 96(4): 666–673.

192. Jeeva I, Chang BY, Bagdonaite L, Kalantzis G, Fearnley TE, Ismail A et al. Treatment of orbital haemangiopericytoma with surgery and preoperative embolization. Eye (Lond) 2013; 27(2): 283–284. doi: 10.1038/ eye.2012.238.

193. Wallace KM, Alaraj A, Aakalu VK, Aletich V,Setabutr P. Endovascular preoperative embolization of orbital hemangiopericytoma with n-butyl cyanoacrylate glue. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2014; 30(4): e97–e100. doi: 10.1097/ IOP.0b013e3182a22bd8.

194. Gear HC, Kemp EG, Kacperek A, Errington RD. Treatment of recurrent orbital haemangiopericytoma with surgery and proton beam therapy. Br J Ophthalmol 2005; 89(1): 123–124.

195. Mafee MF, Pai E, Philip B. Rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbit. Evaluation with MR imaging and CT. Radiol Clin North Am 1998; 36(6): 1215–1227.

196. Crist WM, Anderson JR, Meza JL, Fryer C, Raney RB, Ruymann FB et al. Intergroup rhabdomyosarcoma study-IV: results for patients with nonmetastatic disease. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19(12): 3091–3102.

197. Shields JA, Shields CL. Rhabdomyosarcoma: review for the ophthalmologist. Surv Ophthalmol 2003; 48(1): 39–57.

198. Maurer HM, Beltangady M, Gehan EA, Crist W, Hammond D, Hays DM et al. The intergroup rhabdomyosarcoma study-I. A final report. Cancer 1988; 61(2): 209–220.

199. Abramson DH, Ellsworth RM, Tretter P, Wolff JA, Kitchin FD. The treatment of orbital rhabdomyosarcoma with irradiation and chemotherapy. Ophthalmology 1979; 86(7): 1330–1335.

200. Dalley RW. Fibrous histiocytoma and fibrous tissue tumors of the orbit. Radiol Clin North Am 1999; 37(1): 185–194.

201. Font RL, Hidayat AA. Fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit. A clinicopathologic study of 150 cases. Hum Pathol 1982; 13(3): 199–209.

202. Demirci H, Shields CL, Karatza EC, Shields JA. Orbital lymphoproliferative tumors: analysis of clinical features and systemic involvement in 160 cases. Ophthalmology 2008; 115(9): 1626–1631. doi: 10.1016/ j.ophtha.2008.02.004.

203. Demirci H, Shields CL, Shields JA, Honavar SG, Mercado GJ, Tovilla JC. Orbital tumors in the older adult population. Ophthalmology 2002; 109(2): 243–248.

204. Krásný J, Šach J, Brunnerová R, Konvička J, Jankovská M, Srp A et al. Orbitální tumory u dospělých – desetiletá studie. Čes Slov Oftal 2008; 64(6): 219–227.

205. Flanders AE, Espinosa GA, Markiewicz DA, Howell DD. Orbital lymphoma. Role of CT and MRI. Radiol Clin North Am 1987; 25(3): 601–613.

206. Vaněčková M, Seidl Z. Možnosti zobrazení očního bulbu, orbity a optického nervu v modalitě magnetické rezonance (MR). Část druhá: zobrazení očního nervu, orbity. Neurol Prax 2006; 3: 164–167.

207. Sepahdari AR, Aakalu VK, Setabutr P, Shiehmorteza M, Naheedy JH, Mafee MF. Indeterminate orbital masses: restricted diffusion at MR imaging with echo-planar diffusion-weighted imaging predicts malignancy. Radiology 2010; 256(2): 554–564. doi: 10.1148/ radiol.10091956.

208. Vlková E, Kanova J. Maligní lymfom očnice. Čs Oftal 1986; 42(3): 196–200.

209. Marwaha G, Macklis R, Singh AD. Radiation therapy: orbital tumors. Dev Ophthalmol 2013; 52: 94–101. doi: 10.1159/ 000351084.

210. Shields CL, Shields JA. Lacrimal gland tumors. Int Ophthalmol Clin 1993; 33(3): 181–188.

211. Jung WS, Ahn KJ, Park MR, Kim JY, Choi JJ, Kim BS et al. The radiological spectrum of orbital pathologies that involve the lacrimal gland and the lacrimal fossa. Korean J Radiol 2007; 8(4): 336–342.

212. Mafee MF, Edward DP, Koeller KK, Dorodi S. Lacrimal gland tumors and simulating lesions. Clinicopathologic and MR imaging features. Radiol Clin North Am 1999; 37(1): 219–239.

213. Wright JE, Stewart WB, Krohel GB. Clinical presentation and management of lacrimal gland tumours. Br J Ophthalmol 1979; 63(9): 600–606.

214. Stewart WB, Krohel GB, Wright JE. Lacrimal gland and fossa lesions: an approach to diagnosis and management. Ophthalmology 1979; 86(5): 886–895.

215. Bernardini FP, Devoto MH, Croxatto JO. Epithelial tumors of the lacrimal gland: an update. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2008; 19(5): 409–413. doi: 10.1097/ ICU.0b013e32830b13e1.

216. Gamel JW, Font RL. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland: the clinical significance of a basaloid histologic pattern. Hum Pathol 1982; 13(3): 219–225.

217. Selva D, White VA, O‘Connell JX, Rootman J. Primary bone tumors of the orbit. Surv Ophthalmol 2004; 49(3): 328–342.

218. Yabut SM jr, Kenan S, Sissons HA, Lewis Mm. Malignant transformation of fibrous dysplasia. A case report and review of the literature. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1988; 228: 281–289.

219. Edelstein C, Goldberg RA, Rubino G. Unilateral blindness after ipsilateral prophylactic transcranial optic canal decompression for fibrous dysplasia. Am J Ophthalmol 1998; 126(3): 469–471.

220. Katz BJ, Nerad JA. Ophthalmic manifestations of fibrous dysplasia: a disease of children and adults. Ophthalmology 1998; 105(12): 2207–2215.

221. Parisi MS, Oliveri MB, Mautalen CA. Bone mineral density response to long-term bisphosphonate therapy in fibrous dysplasia. J Clin Densitom 2001; 4(2): 167–172.

222. Lane JM, Khan SN, O‘Connor WJ, Nydick M, Hommen JP, Schneider R et al. Bisphosphonate therapy in fibrous dysplasia. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2001; 382: 6–12.

223. Mewis-Levin L, Garcia CA, Olson JD. Plasma cell myeloma of the orbit. Ann Ophthalmol 1981; 13(4): 477–481.

224. Boari N, Gagliardi F, Spina A, Bailo M, Franzin A, Mortini P. Management of spheno-orbital en plaque meningiomas: clinical outcome in a consecutive series of 40 patients. Br J Neurosurg 2013; 27(1): 84–90. doi: 10.3109/ 02688697.2012.709557.

225. Oya S, Sade B, Lee JH. Sphenoorbital meningioma: surgical technique and outcome. J Neurosurg 2011; 114(5): 1241–1249. doi: 10.3171/ 2010.10.JNS101128.

226. Mirone G, Chibbaro S, Schiabello L, Tola S, George B. En plaque sphenoid wing meningiomas: recurrence factors and surgical strategy in a series of 71 patients. Neurosurgery 2009; 65 (Suppl 6): 100–109. doi: 10.1227/ 01.NEU.0000345652.19200.D5.

227. Cavazza S, Laffi GL, Lodi L, Gasparrini E, Tassinari G. Orbital dermoid cyst of childhood: clinical pathologic findings, classification and management. Int Ophthalmol 2011; 31(2): 93–97. doi: 10.1007/ s10792-011-9419-y.

228. Chung EM, Smirniotopoulos JG, Specht CS, Schroeder JW, Cube R. From the archives of the AFIP: pediatric orbit tumors and tumorlike lesions: nonosseous lesions of the extraocular orbit. Radiographics 2007; 27(6): 1777–1799.

229. Golden BA, Jaskolka MS, Ruiz RL. Craniofacial and orbital dermoids in children. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2012; 24(3): 417–425. doi: 10.1016/ j.coms.2012.04.006.

230. Günalp I, Gündüz K. Secondary orbital tumors. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 1997; 13(1): 31–35.

231. Johnson TE, Tabbara KF, Weatherhead RG, Kersten RC, Rice C, Nasr AM. Secondary squamous cell carcinoma of the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol 1997; 115(1): 75–78.

232. Michel J, Fakhry N, Mancini J, Braustein D, Moreddu E, Giovanni A et al. Sinonasal squamous cell carcinomas: clinical outcomes and predictive factors. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2014; 43(1): 1–6. doi: 10.1016/ j.ijom.2013.07.741.

233. Dulguerov P, Jacobsen MS, Allal AS, Leh-mann W, Calcaterra T. Nasal and paranasal sinus carcinoma: are we making progress? A series of 220 patients and a systematic review. Cancer 2001; 92(12): 3012–3029.

234. Imola MJ, Schramm VL jr. Orbital preservation in surgical management of sinonasal malignancy. Laryngoscope 2002; 112: 1357–1365.

235. Lund VJ, Howard DJ, Wei WI, Cheesman AD. Craniofacial resection for tumors of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses – a 17-year experience. Head Neck 1998; 20(2): 97–105.

236. Iannetti G, Valentini V, Rinna C, Ventucci E, Marianetti TM. Ethmoido-orbital tumors: our experience. J Craniofac Surg 2005; 16(6): 1085–1091.

237. Patel SG, Singh B, Stambuk HE, Carlson D, Bridger PG, Cantu G et al. Craniofacial Surgery for Esthesioneuroblastoma: Report of an International Collaborative Study. J Neurol Surg B Skull Base 2012; 73(3): 208–220. doi: 10.1055/ s-0032-1311754.

238. Char DH, Miller T, Kroll S. Orbital metastases: diagnosis and course. Br J Ophthalmol 1997; 81(5): 386–390.

239. Goldberg RA, Rootman J, Cline RA. Tumors metastatic to the orbit: a changing picture. Surv Ophthalmol 1990; 35(1): 1–24.

240. Aggarwal SK, Bhavana K, Keshri A, Kumar R, Srivastava A. Frontal sinus mucocele with orbital complications: management by varied surgical approaches. Asian J Neurosurg. 2012; 7(3): 135–140. doi: 10.4103/ 1793-5482.103718.

241. Kuhn FA, Javer AR. Primary endoscopic management of the frontal sinus. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2001; 34(1): 59–75.

242. Lešťák JV, Houšťava L, Pašta J, Voska P. Nádory orbity, muko-pyokély s propagací do očnice a jejich chirurgické řešení. Otorinolaryngol (Prague) 1996; 45(4): 177–181.

243. Antonelli V, Cremonini AM, Campobassi A, Pascarella R, Zofrea G, Servadei F. Traumatic encephalocele related to orbital roof fractures: report of six cases and literature review. Surg Neurol 2002; 57(2): 117–125.

244. Elster AD, Branch CL jr. Transalar sphenoidal encephaloceles: clinical and radiologic findings. Radiology 1989; 170(1): 245–247.

245. Morihara H, Zenke K, Shoda D, Fujiwara S, Suehiro S, Hatakeyama T. Intraorbital encephalocele in an adult patient presenting with pulsatile exophthalmos. Case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2010; 50(12):1126–1128.

246. Bahn RS. Graves’ ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med2010; 362(8): 726–738. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMra0905750.

247. Fichter N, Guthoff RF, Schittkowski MP. Orbi-tal decompression in thyroid eye disease. ISRN Oph-thalmol 2012; 2012: 739236. doi: 10.5402/ 2012/ 739236.

248. Boboridis KG, Uddin J, Mikropoulos DG, Bunce C,Mangouritsas G, Voudouragkaki IC et al. Critical Apprai-sal on Orbital Decompression for Thyroid Eye Dis-ease: a Systematic Review and Literature Search. Adv Ther 2015; 32(7): 595–611. doi: 10.1007/ s12325-015-0228-y

249. Rao R, MacIntosh PW, Yoon MK, Lefebvre DR. Current trends in the management of thyroid eye disease. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2015; 26(6): 484–490. doi: 10.1097/ ICU.0000000000000203.

250. Boboridis KG, Bunce C. Surgical orbital decompression for thyroid eye disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 12: CD007630. doi: 10.1002/ 14651858.

251. Šlapák I. Chirurgická léčba primárních tumorů orbity. Otorinolaryng Foniat (Prague) 2008; 57(4): 206–209.

252. Klímová A, Diblík P, Kuthan P, Sklenka P. Zánětlivý pseudotumor očnice. Neurol Prax 2011; 12(3): 164–166.