Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes among Women Practicing Poor Sanitation in Rural India: A Population-Based Prospective Cohort Study

1. Lee AC, Katz J, Blencowe H, Cousens S, Kozuki N, Vogel JP, et al. National and regional estimates of term and preterm babies born small for gestational age in 138 low-income and middle-income countries in 2010. Lancet Glob Heal. 2013;1:e26–36.

2. Beck S, Wojdyla D, Say L, Betran AP, Merialdi M, Requejo JH, et al. The worldwide incidence of preterm birth: a systematic review of maternal mortality and morbidity. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88:31–38. doi: 10.2471/BLT.08.062554 20428351

3. Blencowe H, Cousens S, Oestergaard MZ, Chou D, Moller A- B, Narwal R, et al. National, regional, and worldwide estimates of preterm birth rates in the year 2010 with time trends since 1990 for selected countries: a systematic analysis and implications. Lancet. 2012;379:2162–2172. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60820-4 22682464

4. Lawn JE, Wilczynska-Ketende K, Cousens SN. Estimating the causes of 4 million neonatal deaths in the year 2000. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35:706–718. 16556647

5. World Health Organization. International classification of diseases and related health problems. 10th revision. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004.

6. Walker PGT, ter Kuile FO, Garske T, Menendez C, Ghani AC. Estimated risk of placental infection and low birthweight attributable to Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Africa in 2010: a modelling study. Lancet Glob Heal. 2014;2:e460–7.

7. Odibo AO, Patel KR, Spitalnik A, Odibo L, Huettner P. Placental pathology, first-trimester biomarkers and adverse pregnancy outcomes. J Perinatol. 2014;34:186–191. doi: 10.1038/jp.2013.176 24434779

8. Gilbert NM, O’Brien VP, Hultgren S, Macones G, Lewis WG, Lewis AL. Urinary tract infection as a preventable cause of pregnancy complications: opportunities, challenges, and a global call to action. Glob Adv Health Med. 2013;2:59–69. doi: 10.7453/gahmj.2013.061 24416696

9. Hillier SL, Nugent RP, Eschenbach DA, Krohn MA, Gibbs RS, Martin DH, et al. Association between bacterial vaginosis and preterm delivery of a low-birth-weight infant. The Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1737–1742. 7491137

10. Getachew M, Tafess K, Zeynudin A, Yewhalaw D. Prevalence soil transmitted helminthiasis and malaria co-infection among pregnant women and risk factors in Gilgel Gibe Dam area, southwest Ethiopia. BMC Res Notes. 2013;6:263. doi: 10.1186/1756-0500-6-263 23837685

11. Nielsen SY, Henriksen TB, Hjøllund NH, Mølbak K, Andersen AMN. Risk of adverse pregnancy outcome in women exposed to livestock: a study within the Danish National Birth Cohort. Epidemiol Infect. 2014;142:1545–1553. doi: 10.1017/S0950268813002203 24054461

12. Kumar A, Begum N. Hepatitis E in pregnancy: an insight into etiopathogenesis. 2010;23:281–283.

13. Sukrat B, Wilasrusmee C, Siribumrungwong B, McEvoy M, Okascharoen C, Attia J, et al. Hemoglobin concentration and pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:769057. doi: 10.1155/2013/769057 23984406

14. Goswami TM, Patel VN, Pandya NH, Mevada AK, Desai KS, Solanki KB. Maternal anaemia during pregnancy and its impact on perinatal outcome. Int J Biomed Adv Res. 2014;5:99–102.

15. Koura GK, Ouedraogo S, Le Port A, Watier L, Cottrell G, Guerra J, et al. Anaemia during pregnancy: impact on birth outcome and infant haemoglobin level during the first 18 months of life. Trop Med Int Health. 2012;17:283–291. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02932.x 22146105

16. Finkelstein J, Duggan C, Thomas T, Bose B, Samuel T, Srinivasan K, et al. Maternal anemia, iron deficiency, and pregnancy outcomes in India (804.10). FASEB J. 2014;28 (Suppl 1):804.10. http://www.fasebj.org/content/28/1_Supplement/804.10.short. Accessed 29 May 2015.

17. Villamor E, Cnattingius S. Interpregnancy weight change and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes: a population-based study. Lancet. 2006;368:1164–1170. 17011943

18. Ankumah N- A, Cantu J, Jauk V, Biggio J, Hauth J, Andrews W, et al. Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with mild chronic hypertension before 20 weeks of gestation. Obstet Gynecol. 2014;123:966–972. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000000205 24785847

19. Darling AM, Liu E, Aboud S, Urassa W, Spiegelman D, Fawzi W. Maternal hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2014;125:22–27. doi: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2013.10.007 24508349

20. Hughes RCE, Moore MP, Gullam JE, Mohamed K, Rowan J. An early pregnancy HbA1c ≥5.9% (41 mmol/mol) is optimal for detecting diabetes and identifies women at increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Diabetes Care. 2014;37:2953–2959. doi: 10.2337/dc14-1312 25190675

21. Madianos PN, Bobetsis YA, Offenbacher S. Adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) and periodontal disease: pathogenic mechanisms. J Clin Periodontol. 2013;40 (Suppl 1):S170–S180.

22. Aris A. A 12-year cohort study on adverse pregnancy outcomes in Eastern Townships of Canada: impact of endometriosis. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2014;30:34–37. doi: 10.3109/09513590.2013.848425 24134807

23. Virk J, Zhang J, Olsen J. Medical abortion and the risk of subsequent adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:648–653. 17699814

24. Shah R, Mullany LC, Darmstadt GL, Mannan I, Rahman SM, Talukder RR, et al. Incidence and risk factors of preterm birth in a rural Bangladeshi cohort. BMC Pediatr. 2014;14:112. doi: 10.1186/1471-2431-14-112 24758701

25. Ahmad SA, Sayed MHSU, Barua S, Khan MH, Faruquee MH, Jalil A, et al. Arsenic in drinking water and pregnancy outcomes. Environ Health Perspect. 2001;109:629–631. 11445518

26. Stillerman KP, Mattison DR, Giudice LC, Woodruff TJ. Environmental exposures and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a review of the science. Reprod Sci. 2008;15:631–650. doi: 10.1177/1933719108322436 18836129

27. Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Dadvand P, Grellier J, Martinez D, Vrijheid M. Environmental risk factors of pregnancy outcomes: a summary of recent meta-analyses of epidemiological studies. Environ Health. 2013;12:6. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-12-6 23320899

28. Kile ML, Rodrigues EG, Mazumdar M, Dobson CB, Diao N, Golam M, et al. A prospective cohort study of the association between drinking water arsenic exposure and self-reported maternal health symptoms during pregnancy in Bangladesh. Environ Health. 2014;13:29. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-13-29 24735908

29. Yucra S, Tapia V, Steenland K, Naeher LP, Gonzales GF. Maternal exposure to biomass smoke and carbon monoxide in relation to adverse pregnancy outcome in two high altitude cities of Peru. Environ Res. 2014;130:29–33. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.01.008 24561394

30. Petersen R, Gazmararian JA, Spitz AM, Rowley DL, Goodwin MM, Saltzman LE, et al. Violence and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a review of the literature and directions for future research. Am J Prev Med. 1997;13:366–373. 9315269

31. Luo Z- C, Wilkins R, Kramer MS. Effect of neighbourhood income and maternal education on birth outcomes: a population-based study. CMAJ. 2006;174:1415–1420. 16682708

32. Andersen A- MN, Mortensen LH. Socioeconomic inequality in birth outcomes: what do the indicators tell us, and where do we find the data? CMAJ. 2006;174:1429–1430. 16682710

33. Ververs M-T, Antierens A, Sackl A, Staderini N, Captier V. Which anthropometric indicators identify a pregnant woman as acutely malnourished and predict adverse birth outcomes in the humanitarian context? PLoS Curr. 2013 Jun 7.

34. World Health Organization, United Nations Children’s Fund. Progress on sanitation and drinking-water: 2013 update. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.

35. Schmidt W-P. The elusive effect of water and sanitation on the global burden of disease. Trop Med Int Health. 2014;19:522–527. doi: 10.1111/tmi.12286 24576060

36. Freeman MC, Stocks ME, Cumming O, Jeandron A, Higgins JPT, Wolf J, et al. Hygiene and health: systematic review of handwashing practices worldwide and update of health effects. Trop Med Int Health. 2014;19:906–916. doi: 10.1111/tmi.12339 24889816

37. Cairncross S, Hunt C, Boisson S, Bostoen K, Curtis V, Fung ICH, et al. Water, sanitation and hygiene for the prevention of diarrhoea. Int J Epidemiol. 2010;39 (Suppl 1):i193–i205. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyq035 20348121

38. Ziegelbauer K, Speich B, Mäusezahl D, Bos R, Keiser J, Utzinger J. Effect of sanitation on soil-transmitted helminth infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001162. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001162 22291577

39. Strunz EC, Addiss DG, Stocks ME, Ogden S, Utzinger J, Freeman MC. Water, sanitation, hygiene, and soil-transmitted helminth infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2014;11:e1001620. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001620 24667810

40. Dangour AD, Watson L, Cumming O, Boisson S, Che Y, Velleman Y, et al. Interventions to improve water quality and supply, sanitation and hygiene practices, and their effects on the nutritional status of children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;8:CD009382.

41. Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O. Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts. PLoS ONE. 2013;8:e73784. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073784 24066070

42. Patil SR, Arnold BF, Salvatore AL, Briceno B, Ganguly S, Colford JM, et al. The effect of India’s Total Sanitation Campaign on defecation behaviors and child health in rural Madhya Pradesh: a cluster randomized controlled trial. PLoS Med. 2014;11:e1001709. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001709 25157929

43. Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, et al. Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2014;2:e645–53. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 25442689

44. Campbell OMR. Getting the basics right—the role of water, sanitation and hygiene in maternal and reproductive health; a conceptual framework. Trop Med Int Health. 2015;20:252–267. doi: 10.1111/tmi.12439 25430609

45. Bora R, Sable C, Wolfson J, Boro K, Rao R. Prevalence of anemia in pregnant women and its effect on neonatal outcomes in Northeast India. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2014;27:887–891. doi: 10.3109/14767058.2013.845161 24041147

46. Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Cumming O, Jenkins M, Ensink JHJ, et al. The effect of improved rural sanitation on diarrhoea and helminth infection: design of a cluster-randomized trial in Orissa, India. Emerg Themes Epidemiol. 2012;9:7. doi: 10.1186/1742-7622-9-7 23148587

47. Haider BA, Olofin I, Wang M, Spiegelman D, Ezzati M, Fawzi WW. Anaemia, prenatal iron use, and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2013;346:f3443. doi: 10.1136/bmj.f3443 23794316

48. Jose S. Adult undernutrition in India: is there a huge gender gap? Econ Polit Wkly. 2011;46:95–102.

49. Kulasekaran R. Influence of mothers’ chronic energy deficiency on the nutritional status of preschool children in Empowered Action Group states in India. Int J Nutr Pharmacol Neurol Dis. 2012;2:198.

50. Benova L, Cumming O, Campbell OMR. Systematic review and meta-analysis: association between water and sanitation environment and maternal mortality. Trop Med Int Health. 2014;19:368–387. doi: 10.1111/tmi.12275 24506558

51. Government of India Ministry of Health and Family Welfare National Health Mission. State wise information: Orissa. http://nrhm.gov.in/nrhm-in-state/state-wise-information/odisha.html#state_profile. Accessed 30 November 2014.

52. Kumar A, Das KC. Drinking water and sanitation facility in India and its linkages with diarrhoea among children under five : evidences from recent data. Int J Humanit Soc Sci Invent. 2014;3:50–60.

53. Heijnen M, Rosa G, Fuller J, Eisenberg JNS, Clasen T. The geographic and demographic scope of shared sanitation: an analysis of national survey data from low- and middle-income countries. Trop Med Int Heal. 2014;19:1334–1345.

54. Pullan RL, Freeman MC, Gething PW, Brooker SJ. Geographical inequalities in use of improved drinking water supply and sanitation across sub-Saharan Africa: mapping and spatial analysis of cross-sectional survey data. PLoS Med. 2014;11:e1001626. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001626 24714528

55. Satpathy R, Nanda P, Nanda NC, Bal HB, Mohanty R, Misra A, et al. Challenges in implementation of the ANISA protocol at the Rourkela-Bhubaneswar site in India. Pediatr Infect Dis J. In press.

56. Olusanya BO, Ofovwe GE. Predictors of preterm births and low birthweight in an inner-city hospital in sub-Saharan Africa. Matern Child Health J. 2010;14:978–986. doi: 10.1007/s10995-009-0528-4 19795198

57. George K, Prasad J, Singh D, Minz S, Albert DS, Muliyil J, et al. Perinatal outcomes in a South Asian setting with high rates of low birth weight. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2009;9:5. doi: 10.1186/1471-2393-9-5 19203384

58. Padhi B, Panigrahi P, Elliott L. Prevalence and determinants of low birth weight and prematurity among rural, urban, and indigenous tribal communities in India [abstract]. Abstract number 5378. 27th Conference of the International Society for Environmental Epidemiology; 30 Aug–3 Sept 2015; São Paulo, Brazil. http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/isee/p-1-33-04/. Accessed 2 June 2015.

59. Vyas S, Kumaranayake L. Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan. 2006;21:459–468. 17030551

60. Rothman KJ, Greenland S. Modern epidemiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott- Raven; 1998.

61. Auger N, Luo Z-C, Platt RW, Daniel M. Do mother’s education and foreign born status interact to influence birth outcomes? Clarifying the epidemiological paradox and the healthy migrant effect. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2008;62:402–409. doi: 10.1136/jech.2007.064535 18413452

62. Dreibelbis R, Winch PJ, Leontsini E, Hulland KRS, Ram PK, Unicomb L, et al. The integrated behavioural model for water, sanitation, and hygiene: a systematic review of behavioural models and a framework for designing and evaluating behaviour change interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:1015. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-1015 24160869

63. Golden SD, Earp JAL. Social ecological approaches to individuals and their contexts: twenty years of health education & behavior health promotion interventions. Health Educ Behav. 2012;39:364–372. doi: 10.1177/1090198111418634 22267868

64. Briceno B, Coville A, Martinez S. Promoting handwashing and sanitation evidence from a large-scale randomized trial in rural Tanzania. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 7164. Washington (District of Columbia): World Bank; 2015. http://ssrn.com/abstract=2550526. Accessed 2 June 2015.