Soda and Tobacco Industry Corporate Social Responsibility Campaigns: How Do They Compare?

article has not abstract

Published in the journal: Soda and Tobacco Industry Corporate Social Responsibility Campaigns: How Do They Compare?. PLoS Med 9(6): e32767. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001241
Category: Policy Forum
doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001241

Summary

article has not abstract

Summary Points

Because sugary beverages are implicated in the global obesity crisis, major soda manufacturers have recently employed elaborate, expensive, multinational corporate social responsibility (CSR) campaigns.
These campaigns echo the tobacco industry's use of CSR as a means to focus responsibility on consumers rather than on the corporation, bolster the companies' and their products' popularity, and to prevent regulation.
In response to health concerns about their products, soda companies appear to have launched comprehensive CSR initiatives sooner than did tobacco companies.
Unlike tobacco CSR campaigns, soda company CSR campaigns explicitly aim to increase sales, including among young people.
As they did with tobacco, public health advocates need to counter industry CSR with strong denormalization campaigns to educate the public and policymakers about the effects of soda CSR campaigns and the social ills caused by sugary beverages.

This article was commissioned for the PLoS Medicine series on Big Food that examines the activities and influence of the food and beverage industry in the health arena.

For the first time in 23 years, PepsiCo eschewed the “biggest marketing day of the year” and did not advertise during the 2010 Super bowl [1],[2]. Instead, it launched the Pepsi Refresh Project, a social media cause marketing campaign. The campaign signaled a landmark turn in soda marketing, using cutting-edge social media techniques [3] to spread word-of-mouth buzz and elicit online nominations for a variety of community-based projects. In 2010, Pepsi donated more than $20 million to support causes that received the most votes, and intends to transform the Refresh Project into a global phenomenon [4]. Meanwhile, industry leader Coca-Cola maintains Live Positively, another corporate social responsibility (CSR) campaign that offers consumers healthy lifestyle advice and touts the firm's philanthropic and sustainability efforts.

Both companies' campaigns occur amidst increasing pressure from consumers and public health advocates concerned about rising obesity rates [5],[6], including the passage or consideration of strong legislative measures such as food taxes in many countries [7],[8],[9],[10]. While tobacco-related diseases remain a top public health threat [11], obesity is the fifth leading mortality risk worldwide [12], and the spread of western diets is expected to exacerbate preventable chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease [13] and diabetes [14]. Globally, childhood obesity is “one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century” [15]. Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption has helped fuel this crisis [16],[17]; from 1977 to 2004 U.S. children more than doubled their caloric intake from SSBs, in 2004 they received 13% of their caloric intake from SSBs [17], and these drinks have contributed an estimated one-fifth of the weight gain in the U.S. population from 1977 to 2007 [18].

When facing crises over health concerns, many industries attempt to thwart regulation and gain popular support [19]. The tobacco industry [20] has a long history of influencing the public and policymakers, and oil companies, among others, have emulated Big Tobacco's “playbook” in this regard [21],[22]. Wiist [23] explains how corporations aim to do this by distorting science, wielding political influence, deploying financial tactics, influencing legal and regulatory actions, promoting their own products and services, and investing heavily in public relations. Provocative comparisons of Big Tobacco and the food industry suggest that food companies may be using at least one of these tactics, specifically attempts to influence government policy, with similar aims [23],[24].

CSR is another of these corporate tactics. CSR has been defined as an evolving concept that has come to include companies' economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities to society in addition to the company's fiduciary responsibility to shareholders [25],[26]. Proponents of CSR argue it can help companies meet these essential needs while addressing the firm's “higher” social responsibilities [26]. Companies invest in CSR to address social demands; in an attempt to be accountable to groups beyond their shareholders, they accept ethical obligations to society at large [27]. Cause marketing is a variation of CSR that links the marketer to a specific social benefit, often a community initiative or organization that benefits from the sale of a product or brand [28].

Critics, however, portray CSR as primarily a public relations strategy designed to achieve “innocence by association” as corporations align themselves with good causes to burnish their public image and protect their core business [29],[30]. Corporations may use CSR to improve their standing among consumers, the press, legislators, and regulators who make policy decisions about the company and its products [27],[31],[32]. CSR initiatives are often introduced when corporations fear a threat to their profitability [33], because CSR can boost a firm's bottom line both directly through sales and indirectly by moderating the risk for regulation and improving the overall business climate.

After first reviewing an emblematic tobacco CSR campaign, we examine prominent cases from recent CSR efforts by soda industry leaders PepsiCo and Coca-Cola, to compare how these two industries have implemented CSR strategies.

How Did Tobacco Companies Employ CSR?

During the 1950s, landmark scientific studies linked smoking and disease, and popular media disseminated the research [34]. The tobacco industry and its products began to suffer from reduced social acceptability and were targeted for tighter state and federal regulation [35],[36]. By the late 1990s, tobacco companies faced a series of challenges, including disclosures from industry whistleblowers and formerly secret internal documents, congressional hearings, a civil racketeering lawsuit by the U.S. Department of Justice, and the Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) with 46 state attorneys general compensating the states for Medicaid payments resulting from smoking-related illnesses.

Reacting to these pressures, the tobacco companies all began to implement CSR programs to improve their corporate and product images and to prevent legal and regulatory action [37],[38],[39]. In 1999, industry leader Philip Morris (PM) launched the industry's most ambitious and visible CSR program, which it internally labeled “PM21” [40]. In confidential documents, PM described the program as “a multi-faceted, cross functional effort to change the public's perception of Philip Morris and to improve the public's attitudes toward the company and the people who work for it” [41]. Using paid advertisements and a dedicated website, PM21 highlighted the company's charitable contributions to causes including homelessness, domestic abuse, and the arts [42],[43],[44]. This continued a previous strategy to co-opt interest groups that might oppose tobacco industry programs [45],[46],[47],[48],[49],[50]. While the PM21 campaign improved outlooks among the small segment of the public that had no pre-existing opinions about the company, the campaign hardened the opinions of the large majority who already held negative views of PM and the tobacco industry [42],[51].

PM21 was far from Big Tobacco's only CSR effort. The tobacco companies also launched CSR activities to protect areas of perceived vulnerability, which included regulation [52], litigation [20],[36], and future threats to their bottom line [53], such as declining social acceptability, youth smoking and concern over secondhand smoke exposure. In response to the prevalence of underage smoking, all of the major tobacco companies instituted “youth smoking prevention” programs to avert increased regulation [54],[55],[56]. For instance, PM distributed to students book covers emblazoned with the corporate name, and Lorillard employed the slogan “Tobacco Is Whacko If You're a Teen,” which emphasized the forbidden fruit aspect of youth smoking. Public officials, advocates, teachers, and students opposed these programs, which backfired because they were perceived as cynically employing reverse psychology to encourage youth smoking [57],[58],[59]. Through denormalization tactics that publicly exposed the tobacco industry's bad corporate behavior, tobacco control advocates joined with educators and elected officials to pressure the tobacco companies to drop their disingenuous “youth smoking prevention” programs.

Snapshots of Soda Company CSR and Cause Marketing Campaigns

CSR and cause marketing have become industry-wide practices, including all leading SSB firms: Nestle [60], PepsiCo, Coca-Cola, and Dr. Pepper-Snapple Group [61]. Using information from the companies' campaign, corporate, and partner websites; their annual CSR reports; news and trade press coverage of the campaigns; and other reports, we examine prominent campaigns from industry leaders PepsiCo and Coca-Cola, which have embraced CSR with elaborate, expensive, and multinational campaigns [62],[63]. See a list of soda industry CSR-related URLs in Box 1.

Box 1. Internet Presence of Soda Industry CSR Campaigns

PepsiCo CSR Campaigns

Refresh Project homepage: http://www.refresheverything.com
Refresh Project Facebook: www.facebook.com/apps/application.php?id=301917354154
Refresh Project Twitter: http://twitter.com/#/pepsi/pepsirefresh
Shiv Singh, PepsiCo's Global Head of Digital, on the Refresh Project as marketing, including to youth: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xb9Kby9_NBQ
UK NHS on PepsiCo UK's Change4Life partnership: http://www.nhs.uk/change4life/Pages/national-partners-pepsico.aspx
PepsiCo UK on Change4Life role: http://www.pepsico.co.uk/our-company/media-centre/news-and-comment/pepsico-uk-partners-with-department-of-healths-play4life-campaign

Coca-Cola CSR Campaigns

Live Positively homepage: http://www.livepositively.com
Sprite's Spark Your Park: http://www.livepositively.com/en_us/spritesparkparks/

Other Sugary Drink Manufacturer's CSR Campaigns

Nestlé: http://www.nestle.com/CSV/Pages/Homepage.aspx
Dr. Pepper Snapple Group: http://www.drpeppersnapplegroup.com/values/sustainability/

PepsiCo's Refresh Project and Change4Life

The Pepsi Refresh Project dominates PepsiCo's CSR efforts in the U.S. The $20 million cause marketing campaign uses social media to identify philanthropic ventures [64]. Anyone may submit an idea online for a project, and PepsiCo funds the projects that generate the most votes each month, from community arts to “refreshing” parklands. Votes are cast on the campaign website, on its Facebook page, and on mobile devices via SMS messaging [65]. In January 2011, the Project explicitly linked the campaign to product sales by offering participants up to 100 additional “Power Votes” when they purchase specially marked PepsiCo beverages [66]. Globally, PepsiCo launched “Project Refresh,” which funds individual youth's ideas to make “the world more exciting and fun” in at least 18 countries from Venezuela to Ukraine [67].

The Refresh Project directly involves youth in PepsiCo's CSR campaign. PepsiCo has donated branded soda company items to a variety of youth-oriented causes such as children's ball fields [68] and band uniforms [69]. PepsiCo also hired a marketing firm to conduct a multi-city tour featuring popular musicians to inform youth about the initiative and to encourage them to submit grant proposals [70]. The Refresh Project successfully targeted Millennials—those currently aged 11–31 [71]—using traditional media, such as television, and new media, such as mobile devices, to drive “referral” marketing by leveraging Millennials' social networks [72].

Instead of separating moneymaking ventures from charitable donations, the contemporary soda industry CSR blurs the traditional lines between a corporation's profit-oriented and philanthropic activities. According to Shiv Singh, a marketing officer for the Refresh Project, the campaign is “not a traditional non-profit corporate philanthropy effort that we just go write checks. It's putting the DNA of doing and feeling good at the core of a brand marketing effort” [73]. Moreover, while the initiative is publicly presented as supporting charitable causes, the program was not funded with “corporate philanthropy dollars” but with “brand marketing dollars, because we believed fundamentally and still do that, you know, by doing good in a way that's aligned with our Pepsi brand values, you know, we can help the bottom line” [73]. By this, PepsiCo intends to take advantage of Millennials' desire to support or do business with companies that contribute to society [74] by associating their brand with all of the community projects they fund. PepsiCo considers Millennials a “key cohort” for the initiative, tracked their engagement with the campaign via new media, and used specific metrics to measure the positive effect the campaign had on their intent to buy PepsiCo products [75]. Accordingly, PepsiCo is using CSR as a marketing tool [73],[76],[77], in part to influence Millennials by reinforcing the view that it is a good corporate citizen.

Since 2009, PepsiCo has also been a partner with the United Kingdom National Health Service's Change4Life campaign. PepsiCo contributes to the “marketing component” [78] of that government's response to obesity, which promotes physical activity and healthy eating through traditional and new media social marketing campaigns. A “commercial partner” of the campaign, PepsiCo sponsored a major print ad buy for Change4Life that used famous soccer players to encourage parents to help their children “have an active lifestyle” [79].

Coca-Cola's Live Positively

Coca-Cola's U.S. CSR activities occur under the Live Positively banner. They use educational campaigns such as “Balanced Living” or “Exercise is Medicine” to urge individual consumers to achieve healthy lifestyles; support charitable projects, such as the $2 million Spark Your Park (also called Sprite Spark Parks) initiative to refurbish basketball courts and school athletic fields in underserved communities [80]; and develop initiatives to improve the company's own business practices, e.g. reducing its water consumption. Coca-Cola promotes Live Positively through a dedicated website, full-page newspaper ads, more prominent nutrition labeling on product packaging, and a new line of 7.5-ounce “mini-cans.” Live Positively builds on Coca-Cola's existing CSR initiatives, such as the company's associations with youth organizations, including Coca-Cola's relationship with the Boys and Girls Club of America dating back 65 years [81].

Even from these brief descriptions it appears that the soda CSR campaigns reinforce the idea that obesity is caused by customers' “bad” behavior, diverting attention from soda's contribution to rising obesity rates. For example, CSR campaigns that include the construction and upgrading of parks for youth who are at risk for diet-related illnesses keep the focus on physical activity, rather than on unhealthful foods and drinks. Such tactics redirect the responsibility for health outcomes from corporations onto its consumers, and externalize the negative effects of increased obesity to the public [82],[32].

Soda and Tobacco CSR: How Do They Compare?

Soda CSR campaigns echo tobacco CSR in their focus on the consumer and in their likely intent to thwart regulation. Soda CSR differs from tobacco in its explicit appeals to youth and in the aggressive launch of comprehensive campaigns soon after soda was linked to obesity.

Soda and Tobacco CSR Shifts Responsibility from the Corporation to Consumers

By highlighting the importance of consumers making healthy choices instead of the companies' roles in creating an unhealthy environment, soda company and tobacco industry CSR campaigns emphasize personal, instead of corporate, responsibility. For instance, the tobacco industry's “youth smoking prevention” programs appeared to combat youth smoking, but instead placed responsibility on parents and children for the decision to smoke [55],[56]. Similarly, in its “Balanced Living” message on Live Positively, Coca-Cola suggests that the company is responsible only for providing health information to consumers, such as through the “Clear on Calories” labels that show calorie counts on the front of bottles or cans. The company suggests that health is ultimately up to consumers, because with new labels, “you'll know exactly how many calories are in a beverage before making a purchase—whether at a store, one of our vending machines or fountain machines—making it easier for you to make informed choices and live a healthy, active lifestyle” [83]. PepsiCo's advertisement for the UK's Change4Life campaign likewise insists that “active parents make active kids” [84].

Tobacco and Soda Tactics Seek to Prevent Regulation

As CSR campaigns can improve a firm's standing with the public and policymakers, they are potentially a powerful mechanism to forestall regulation [47]. British American Tobacco, for example, used CSR to reestablish political influence with the UK Department of Health, with which its relationship had deteriorated [85]. While the Refresh Project and Live Positively have not stated such goals outright—and we have no cache of internal soda industry documents to investigate for such explicit rationales—the campaigns employ the very tactics that companies use to influence the public and policymakers [23]. For instance, the tobacco industry used donations to cultural organizations to help enlist their support against a proposed public smoking ban in New York City [86]. From that perspective, PepsiCo's Refresh Project represents $20 million in donations to community groups who publicly praise the company [73], and may be recruited to help oppose future regulatory initiatives. Moreover, PepsiCo and Coca-Cola are members of the American Beverage Association (ABA), an industry trade group that has aggressively lobbied against taxes on SSBs [87]. Following a trademark tobacco industry tactic, the soda companies and the ABA are members of the front group “Americans Against Food Taxes,” which, despite its name, is primarily composed of food and beverage companies. The group has aired a $10 million TV campaign against taxing beverages and promoting individual responsibility as the remedy for obesity [88].

Unlike Tobacco, Soda CSR Explicitly Seeks Sales, and Sales to Youth

In contrast to the actions of Big Tobacco, soda industry CSR initiatives are explicitly and aggressively profit-seeking. Soda companies use CSR to tout their concern for the health and well-being of youth while simultaneously cultivating brand loyalty. The stated goal of PepsiCo's flagship Refresh Project is to increase long-term sales [73],[89] by engaging youth in the initiatives [69] and to build loyalty by associating PepsiCo with benevolent, worthwhile ventures. According to PepsiCo, after just nine months, the Refresh Project is an overwhelming success: “With over 2.8 billion (with a “B”!) earned media impressions, the project exceeded our internal benchmarks early in the year and we've seen an improvement in key brand health metrics. Crucial to PepsiCo's bottom line, when Millennials, the campaign's key demographic target, know about the Project their purchase intent goes up” [90]. Such soda CSR programs focus strategically on this cohort of 11- to 31-year-olds [71] to build brand preferences from an early age and create a climate in which drinking soda is viewed as a natural, frequent activity.

Soda companies also benefit from sponsorship of youth-oriented community organizations in ways that are unavailable to tobacco companies, which must avoid appearing to attract young people as a condition of the MSA [91]. Soda companies' marketing to youth is not similarly constrained, and soda CSR campaigns target youth in schools or community centers. The use of cause marketing and new media facilitates the companies' connection to youth. For instance, Coke uses its Spark Your Park program, with heavy emphasis on Facebook and Twitter engagements online, to promote its Sprite product while donating funds to neglected recreation facilities [92]. Moreover, these CSR campaigns provide a mechanism for soda companies to circumvent pledges not to market in schools [93],[94],[95]. While soda companies agreed to remove full-calorie drinks from U.S. schools, CSR programs like the Refresh Project keep the brand in front of young people with promises of grants for children's schools, parks, or other programs.

Soda Is Employing CSR Sooner Than Big Tobacco

The overall goal for the tobacco industry's CSR strategy has been to normalize its products and its corporate image [96],[97],[98], but it has struggled as public health advocates have denormalized tobacco use and challenged tobacco companies trying to rehabilitate their images. Historically, advocates countered such campaigns by stigmatizing smoking [99]. Now, denormalization characterizes the corporation's activities as a disease vector [100], and highlights the disingenuous use of CSR [101]. Such industry denormalization refutes the tobacco companies' argument that they are like any other legitimate industry [20], builds support for stronger regulation, and helps deter and reduce adolescent [102], young adult [103], and adult smoking [104],[105].

The soda industry appears to be improving upon Big Tobacco's CSR strategy by acting sooner [28]. Although the tobacco industry responded to critics in 1954 with the nationwide newspaper advertisement “A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers” [106], decades lapsed between the public's outcry regarding tobacco and when the industry mounted concerted CSR campaigns [107]. While soda companies may not face the level of social stigmatization or regulatory pressure that now confronts Big Tobacco, concern over soda and the obesity epidemic is growing. The World Health Organization [108] and the U.S. Surgeon General cited soda as a key contributor to obesity [109], U.S. First Lady Michelle Obama's Let's Move initiative prompted new company policies by soda marketers [110], and interest in soda taxes is growing [111],[112]. The soda companies are feeling this pressure. In 2009, Coca-Cola told its shareholders that “Increasing concern among consumers, public health professionals and government agencies of the potential health problems associated with obesity and inactive lifestyles represents a significant challenge to our industry” [113]. Unlike tobacco, at the first signs of soda denormalization soda companies quickly launched comprehensive, well-funded, international CSR campaigns that take advantage of social media.

Implications for Public Health Advocates

Tobacco companies launched CSR campaigns to rehabilitate themselves with the public when their image had been tarnished [20]. Because the most comprehensive initiatives were introduced well after intense public outcry, however, their CSR efforts struggled to achieve their aims [42]. As soda denormalization is nascent, soda companies may enjoy benefits from CSR that Big Tobacco labored to accomplish. In addition to effectively preempting regulation and maintaining its favorable position with the public, the soda industry's CSR tactics may also entice today's young people to become brand-loyal lifetime consumers, an outcome that current social norms dictate Big Tobacco cannot explicitly seek.

Without sustained denormalization of soda, it will be harder for public health advocates to see why partnering with industry may further the companies' goals more than their own. While tobacco denormalization was facilitated by litigation, which used the discovery process to procure internal documents revealing the industry's duplicitous intent, it is possible to respond to the soda industry without a “smoking gun.” For example, one instance of tobacco industry denormalization that did not rely on internal documents was the revelation that PM spent more on publicizing its charitable efforts than it spent on the charities itself, which exposed the cynical nature of Big Tobacco's CSR [114]. The Refresh Project's $20 million price tag, and the statements from company representatives, give public health advocates a similar opportunity to argue that this is marketing, not philanthropy [115]. Such criticism appeared in a Lancet editorial, which stated that the U.K.'s Change4Life should have avoided “ill-judged partnerships with companies that fuel obesity” [116]. Research on the health harms of sugary beverages can help advocates name these products as one of the “biggest culprits” [117] behind the obesity crisis. Emerging science on the addictiveness [118] and toxicity [119] of sugar, especially when combined with the known addictive properties of caffeine found in many sugary beverages, should further heighten awareness of the product's public health threat similar to the understanding about the addictiveness of tobacco products.

Public health advocates must continue to monitor the CSR activities of soda companies, and remind the public and policymakers that, similar to Big Tobacco, soda industry CSR aims to position the companies, and their products, as socially acceptable rather than contributing to a social ill.

Supporting Information

Attachment 1

Zdroje

1. RashJ (8 February 2010) Super Bowl Is Most-Watched TV Event Ever. The Rash Report. Available: http://adage.com/article/mediaworks/super-bowl-watched-tv-event/141990/. Accessed 11 November 2011

2. ZmudaNSteinbergB (19 December 2009) Why Pepsi Pulled Out Of The Super Bowl. Business Insider. Available: http://www.businessinsider.com/why-pepsi-pulled-out-of-the-super-bowl-2009-12 Accessed 11 November 2011

3. ZmudaN (8 February 2010) Pass or Fail, Pepsi's Refresh Will be Case for Marketing Textbooks. Advertising Age. Available: http://adage.com/digital/article?article_id=141973. Accessed 14 November 2011

4. ZmudaN (7 September 2010) Pepsi Expands Refresh Project. Advertising Age. Available: http://adage.com/article/news/pepsi-expands-refresh-project/145773/. Accessed 14 November 2011

5. Ethical Investment Research Services 2006 Obesity concerns in the food and beverage industry. London: EIRIS. Available: http://www.eiris.org/files/research%20publications/seeriskobesityfeb06.pdf Accessed 11 November 2011.

6. Vartanianal 2007 Effects of Soft Drink Consumption on Nutrition and Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Am J Pubic Health 97(4) 667

7. AbendL (6 October 2011). Beating Butter: Denmark Imposes the World's First Fat Tax. Time Magazine. Available: http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2096185,00.html. Accessed 31 January 2012

8. LomasU (18 July 2011) Hungary Adopts ‘Hamburger Tax’. Tax News. Available: http://www.tax-news.com/news/Hungary_Adopts_Hamburger_Tax____50476.html. Accessed 31 January 2012

9. WatsonL (29 December 2011) France approves fat tax on sugary drinks such as Coca-Cola and Fanta. Daily Mail. Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2079796/France-approves-fat-tax-sugary-drinks-Coca-Cola-Fanta.html. Accessed 31 January 2012

10. IceNews (27 September 2010). Finland imposes tax hike on sugary delights. Available: http://www.icenews.is/index.php/2010/09/27/finland-imposes-tax-hike-on-sugary-delights/. Accessed 31 January 2012

11. JiaHLubetkinEI 2010 Trends in Quality-Adjusted Life-Years Lost Contributed by Smoking and Obesity. Am J Prev Med 38 138 144

12. World Health Organization (March 2011) Obesity and overweight factsheet. Geneva: WHO. Available http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/index.html. Accessed 14 November 2011

13. IqbalRAnandSOunpuuSIslamSZhangX 2008 Dietary patterns and the risk of acute myocardial infarction in 52 countries: results of the INTERHEART study. Circulation 118 1929 1937

14. HuFB 2011 Globalization of Diabetes: The role of diet, lifestyle, and genes Diabetes Care 34 1249 1257

15. World Health Organization 2011 Childhood overweight and obesity factsheet. Geneva: WHO. Available http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/childhood/en/. Accessed 14 November 2011.

16. GortmakerSLongMWangYC (November 2009) The Negative Impact of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages on Children's Health. New York City: The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Available http://www.healthyeatingresearch.org/images/stories/her_research_briefs/her_ssb_synthesis_091116.pdf. Accessed 14 November 2011

17. National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Division of Nutrition and Physical Activity (September 2006) Does Drinking Beverages with Added Sugars Increase the Risk of Overweight? Research to Practice Series, No. 3. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/pdf/r2p_sweetend_beverages.pdf. Accessed 14 November 2011

18. Woodward-LopezGKaoJRitchieL 2010 To what extent have sugar-sweetened beverages contributed to the obesity epidemic? Pub Health Nutrition 14 499 509

19. ZadekS 2004 The Path to Corporate Responsibility. Harvard Business Review 82 125 132

20. FriedmanLC 2009 Tobacco Industry Use of Corporate Social Responsibility Tactics as a Sword and a Shield on Secondhand Smoke Issues. J Law Med Ethics 37(4) 819 827

21. Union of Concerned Scientists (January 2007) Smoke, Mirrors and Hot Air: How ExxonMobil Uses Big Tobacco's Tactics to Manufacture Uncertainty on Climate Science. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists. Available: http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/global_warming/exxon_report.pdf. Accessed 14 November 2011

22. SethiSP 1994 Multinational Corporations and the Impact of Public Advocacy on Corporate Strategy: Nestle and the Infant Formula Controversy. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers

23. WiistW 2011 The corporate play book, health, and democracy: the snack food and beverage industry's tactics in context. StucklerDSiegelK editor. Sick Societies: Responding to the global challenge of chronic disease. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

24. BrownellKWarnerKE 2009 The perils of ignoring history: Big Tobacco played dirty and millions died. How similar is Big Food? Milbank Quarterly 2009 87(1) 259 94

25. CarrollAB 1979 A Three-Dimensional Conceptual Model of Corporate Performance. Acad Mgmt Rev 4(4) 497 505

26. LeeSYCarrollCE 2011 The Emergence, Variation, and Evolution of Corporate Social Responsibility in the Public Sphere, 1980–2004: The Exposure of Firms to Public Debate. J Bus Ethics 1 115 131

27. GarrigaEMeléD 2004 Corporate Social Responsibility Theories: Mapping the Territory. J Bus Ethics 53(1–2) 51 71

28. SmithSMAlcornDS 1991 Cause marketing: a new direction in the marketing of corporate responsibility. Journal of Consumer Marketing 8(3) 19 35

29. JohnG 2005 Deconstructing Corporate Social Responsibility. Institute of Public Affairs. Available: http://ipa.org.au/files/Gary%20Johns%20-%20Deconstruct%20CSR.pdf. Accessed 14 November 2011

30. DoaneD 2005 ‘The Myth of CSR.’ Stanford Social Innovation Rev 3(3) 22 29

31. ClarkCE 2000 Differences between public relations and corporate social responsibility: an analysis. Public Relat Rev 26 (3) 363 380

32. BanerjeeSB 2008 Corporate Social Responsibility: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Crit Sociol 34 51 79

33. SiegelDSVitalianoDF 2007 An Empirical Analysis of the Strategic Use of Corporate Social Responsibility. J Econ Manag Strategy 16 773 792

34. NorrR 1952 Cancer by the Carton. Readers Digest. Bates number TIMN0105705/5707. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bcm92f00. Accessed 14 November 2011.

35. PalazzoGRichterU 2005 CSR Business as Usual? The Case of the Tobacco Industry. J Bus Ethics 61 387 401

36. FriedmanLC 2007 Philip Morris's Website and Commercials Use New Language to Mislead the Public Into Believing It Has Changed Its Stance on Smoking and Disease. Tob Control 16: e9. Available: http://www.tobaccocontrol.com/cgi/content/full/16/6/e9. Accessed August 18, 2011.

37. HirschhornN 2004 Corporate Social Responsibility and the Tobacco Industry: Hope or Hype? Tob Control 13 447 543

38. World Health Organization 2012 (February 2003) Tobacco industry and corporate responsibility … an inherent contradiction. Available: http://www.who.int/tobacco/communications/CSR_report.pdf. Accessed February 1

39. ThomsonG (September 2005) Trust Us, We're Socially Responsible: The TRUTH Behind British American's Tobacco NZ's Corporate Social Responsibility Reports. Available: http://www.ash.org.nz/site_resources/library/Research_commisoned_by_ASH/Trust_us_we_re_socially_responsible.pdf. Accessed February 1, 2012

40. SzczypkaGWakefieldMAEmerySTerry-McElrathYMFlayBR 2007 Working to make an image: an analysis of three Philip Morris corporate image media campaigns. Tob Control 16 344 350

41. PhilipMorris (19 January 1999) PM 21 Overview. Bates number 2072737861/7899. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tlu95c00. Accessed 14 November 2011

42. DavisRMGilpinEALokenBViswanathKWakefieldMA (June 2008) National Cancer Institute Monograph 19: The Role of the Media in Promoting and Reducing Tobacco Use. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available: http://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/tcrb/monographs/19/m19_complete.pdf. Accessed 14 November 2011

43. SmithEAMaloneRE 2003 Altria Means Tobacco: Philip Morris's Identity Crisis. Am J Public Health 93 553 556

44. TeslerLAMaloneRE (December 2008) Corporate Philanthropy, Lobbying, and Public Health Policy. Am J Public Health 98 2123 2133

45. YergerVBMaloneRE 2002 African American leadership groups: smoking with the enemy. Tob Control 11 336 345

46. McDanielPAMaloneRE 2009 Creating the “desired mindset”: Philip Morris's efforts to improve its corporate image among women. Women Health 49(5) 441 474

47. BlakeJDowlingJFloriDMerrittWMillerA 1984 Workshop Dealing with the Issues Indirectly: Constituencies. Bates number 2025421972-2025421973. Available at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fxz88e00. Accessed 25 October 2011.

48. WhiteL 1991 Ethical Considerations of Accepting Financial Support from the Tobacco Industry. Bates number TI06510995-TI06511007. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/qoj79b00. Accessed 14 November 2011.

49. StoneMSiegelMB 2004 Tobacco Industry Sponsorship of Community-Based Public Health Initiatives: Why AIDS and Domestic Violence Organizations Accept or Refuse Funds. J Public Health Manag Pract 10 511 517

50. BarbeauEMKelderGAhmedSMantuefelVBalbachED 2005 From strange bedfellows to natural allies: the shifting allegiance of fire service organisations in the push for federal fire-safe cigarette legislation. Tobacco Control 14(5) 338 345

51. Philip Morris (August, 2000) PM21 Message Development Focus Groups. Bates No. 2085289998. Available at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ain10c00. Accessed 14 September 2011

52. RamsayJG (February 10 1995) U.S. Exhibit 66,716, Draft Presentation, “JJM to PM Invitational Importance of Youth Issue – 10 minutes.” Bates number USX295707-USX295712. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tax36b00. Accessed: May 9, 2010

53. WallsT (July 12, 1994) CAC Presentation # 5 Draft. Bates number 2040235797. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dck35e00. Accessed 13 September 2011

54. Tobacco Institute. (Undated). The development of tobacco industry strategy. Bates number TIMN0018970/8979. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ddm03f00. Accessed 13 September 2011

55. LandmanALingPMGlantzSA 2002 Tobacco Industry Smoking Prevention Programs: Protecting the Industry and Hurting Tobacco Control. Am J Public Health 92 917 930

56. MandelLLStellaABGlantzSA 2006 Avoiding “Truth”: Tobacco Industry Promotion of Life Skills Training. J Adolesc Health 39 868 879

57. Providence Journal (23 September 2000) Book Covers Cloud Messages on Tobacco Use. Bates number 2078881579A. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bkn86c00. Accessed: 18 May 2010

58. NBC Affiliate (Undated) Schools Upset Over Tobacco-Sponsored Book Covers. Bates number 2082835201A. Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zsl55c00. Accessed: 18 May 2010

59. LockyerW (22 February 2001) Philip Morris Book Covers. Bates number 2083608706. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/drh47c00. Accessed: 7 June 2010

60. NestléS.A (Undated) Creating Shared Value. Nestlé S.A. Available: http://www.nestle.com/CSV/Pages/CSV.aspx. Accessed 6 February 2012

61. Dr. Pepper Snapple Group (Undated) Sustainability. Dr. Pepper Snapple Group. Available: www.drpeppersnapplegroup.com/values/sustainability/. Accessed 6 February 2012

62. The Coca-Cola Company (Undated) 2009/2010 The Coca-Cola Company Sustainability Review. Available: http://www.thecoca-colacompany.com/citizenship/pdf/SR09/2009-2010_The_Coca-Cola_Company_Sustainability_Review.pdf. Accessed 14 November 2011

63. PepsiCo (Undated) 2009 Annual Report – Performance with Purpose. Available: www.pepsico.com/annual09/performance_with_purpose.html. Accessed 14 November 2011

64. PepsiCo (Undated) Funded Ideas – Pepsi Refresh Project Grant Winners. Available: http://www.refresheverything.com/grant-recipients. Accessed 14 November 2011

65. HugeInc 2011 Pepsi Case Study. Available: http://www.hugeinc.com/casestudies/pepsi. Accessed 14 November 2011.

66. Smith G (28 April 2011) What is Power Voting? PepsiCo. Available: http://www.refresheverything.com/blog/2011/04/28/what-is-power-voting/. Accessed 14 November 2011

67. BelanK (10 May 2011) Ana Maria Irazabal, Marketing Director for Brand Pepsi in the U.S.: “Pepsi Believes in Optimism and the Power of People” Popsop. A.vailable: http://popsop.com/45856. Accessed 6 February 2012

68. WelchC (5 October 2011) Treyton's Field of Dreams wins $50,000 in Pepsi voting. Daily Union. Available: http://dailyunion.com/Main.asp?SectionID=36&SubSectionID=110&ArticleID=9676. Accessed 6 February 2012

69. PrimicerioK (3 January 2012) Wallingford high schools win funding for band uniforms. The Record-Journal Publishing Company. Available: http://www.myrecordjournal.com/wallingford/article_27bde5b2-3664-11e1-b740-0019bb2963f4.html. Accessed 6 February 2012

70. Team Epiphany (Undated) Pepsi Refresh – Grant Program. Available: http://www.teamepiphany.com/html/2010/05/pepsi-refresh-grant-program/.Accessed 14 November 2011

71. HoweNStraussW (September 2000) Millennials Rising: The Next Generation. New York: Vintage

72. Ypulse (20 September 2010) Ypulse Interview: Anamaria Irazabal, Pepsi Refresh Project. Available: http://www.ypulse.com/ypulse-interview-anamaria-irazabal-pepsi-refresh-project. Accessed 5 April 2012

73. PepsiCo Inc (15 March 2011) Pepsi Refresh Official SXSW Panel. Online video clip. YouTube. Available: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xb9Kby9_NBQ. Accessed 6 February 2012

74. JWT Ethos (September 2011) Social Good. Available: http://cauzoom.com/library/SocialGood_JWT_TrendReport_Sep2011.pdf. Accessed: February 4, 2012

75. PepsiCo (May 2011) Quick Facts PepsiCo Beverages America. Available: http://www.pepsico.com/Download/PBA-Quick-Facts_May-2011.pdf. Accessed 21 March 2012

76. PepsiCo (Quarter 4 2009) PepsiC Fourth Quarter and Full Year 2009 Earnings Call. Available: http://www.pepsico.com/Download/PEP_Q409Deck.pdf. Accessed 21 March 2012

77. PepsiCo (20 April 2009) PepsiCo Delivers Solid First-Quarter Results; Reaffirms Full-Year Guidance. Available: http://www.pepsico.com/PressRelease/PepsiCo-Delivers-Solid-First-Quarter-Results-Reaffirms-Full-Year-Guidance04202009.html. Accessed 21 March 2012

78. Department of Health UK (Undated) Change4Life – Eat Well, Move More, Live Longer. Department of Health UK. Available: http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publichealth/Change4Life/index.htm. Accessed 6 February 2012

79. PepsiCo UK (29 October 2009) PepsiCo UK partners with Department of Health's Play4Life Campaign. PepsiCo UK. Available: http://www.pepsico.co.uk/our-company/media-centre/news-and-comment/pepsico-uk-partners-with-department-of-healths-play4life-campaign. Accessed 6 February 2012

80. The Coca-Cola Company 2011 Sprite Spark Parks. Available: http://www.livepositively.com/en_us/spritesparkparks/#/spritesparkparks. Accessed 14 November 2011.

81. The Coca-Cola Company 2011 Boys & Girls Clubs of America. Available: http://livepositively.com/#/bgca. Accessed 14 November 2011.

82. NestleM 2007 Food Politics: how the food industry influences nutrition and health. University of California Press 493 p

83. The Coca-Cola Company (undated) Getting Clear on Calories. Available: www.livepositively.com/en_us/clear_on_calories/. Accessed 31 January 2012

84. U.K. Department of Health 2012 National Partners – PepsiCo. Available: http://www.nhs.uk/Change4Life/Pages/national-partners-pepsico.aspx. Accessed February 1, 2012.

85. FooksGJGilmoreABSmithKBCollinJHoldenC 2011 Corporate Social Responsibility and Access to Policy Élites: An Analysis of Tobacco Industry Documents. PLoS Med 8 doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001076 e1001076

86. GoldbergerP (5 October 1994) Philip Morris Calls In I.O.U.'s in the Arts. The New York Times. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/05/arts/philip-morris-calls-in-iou-s-in-the-arts.html. Accessed 6 February 2012

87. HamburgerTGeigerK (7 February 2010) Beverage industry douses tax on soft drinks. Los Angeles Times. Available: http://articles.latimes.com/2010/feb/07/nation/la-na-soda-tax7-2010feb07. Accessed 19 October 2011

88. WarnerM (25 March 2010) The soda tax wars are back: Brace yourself. BNet. Available: http://www.bnet.com/blog/food-industry/the-soda-tax-wars-are-back-brace-yourself/474. Accessed 19 October 2011

89. [No author listed] (November 19, 2010) “Changes in ‘Refresh Project’ Coming. Beverage Digest 57 (10) 6

90. GartonC (5 November 2010) Pepsi Exec dishes on Pepsi Refresh, future plans for cause marketing. USA Today. Available: http://yourlife.usatoday.com/mind-soul/doing-good/kindness/post/2010/11/Pepsi-exec-dishes-on-Pepsi-Refresh-future-plans-for-cause-marketing/130056/1. Accessed 14 November 2011

91. National Association of Attorneys General 1998 The Master Settlement Agreement. Available: http://www.naag.org/backpages/naag/tobacco/msa/msa-pdf/MSA%20with%20Sig%20Pages%20and%20Exhibits.pdf/file_view. Accessed 14 November 2011.

92. The Coca Cola Company 2011 Sprite Spark Parks is Back Spring '12. Sprite Spark Parks Project. Available: http://www.spritesparkparks.com/. Accessed 6 February 2012.

93. Alliance for a Healthier Generation 2006 Memorandum of Understanding. Available: http://www.healthiergeneration.org/uploadedFiles/Industry/supporting_documents/MOU%20050206%20FINAL.pdf. Accessed 20 October 2011.

94. Council of Better Business Bureau (October 2010) Coca-Cola North America's Pledge Restated. Available: http://www.bbb.org/us/storage/0/Shared%20Documents/coke%20final.pdf. Accessed 14 November 2011

95. Council of Better Business Bureau (30 August 2010) Amended Pledge of PepsiCo Inc. Available: http://www.bbb.org/us/storage/0/Shared%20Documents/Ammended%20PepsiCo%20Pledge%202011.pdf. Accessed 14 November 2011

96. ParrishS (29 May 2001) Speech. Bates number 2080951634/1656. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wmr82c00. Accessed: 3 June 2010

97. [Unknown Author] (October 2001) Philip Morris Corporate Image Presentation. Bates number 2082244532/4535. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zio49c00. Accessed: 3 June 2010

98. Philip Morris (April 2001) Presentation. Bates number 2080951802, 2080951843. Available: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/umr82c00. Accessed: June 3, 2010

99. ChapmanSFreemanB 2008 Markers of the Denormalisation of Smoking and the Tobacco Industry. Tob Control 17 25 31

100. Leatherdale ST, Sparks R, Kirsh VA 2006 Beliefs About Tobacco Industry (Mal)Practices and Youth Smoking Behavior: Insight For Future Tobacco Control Campaigns. Cancer Causes Control 17 705 711

101. MahoodG (March 2004) Tobacco Industry Denormalization, Telling the Truth About the Tobacco Industry's Role in the Tobacco Epidemic. Available: http://www.nsra-adnf.ca/cms/file/pdf/Denormalization_English_Booklet.pdf. Accessed 13 September 2011

102. BernatDHEricksonDJWidomeRPerryCLForsterJL 2008 Adolescent Smoking Trajectories: Results From a Population-Based Cohort Study. J Adolesc Health 43 334 340

103. LingPMNeilandsTBGlantzSA 2007 The Effect of Support for Action Against the Tobacco Industry on Smoking Among Young Adults. Am J Public Health 97(8) 1449 1456

104. HammondDFongGTZannaMPThrasherJFBorlandR 2006 Tobacco Denormlization and Industry Beliefs Among Smokers from Four Countries. Am J Prev Med 31(3) 225 232

105. GarfieldM 2004 Tobacco Industry Denormalization, Telling the Truth About the Tobacco Industry's Role in the Tobacco Epidemic, March 2004. Available: http://www.nsra-adnf.ca/cms/file/pdf/Denormalization_English_Booklet.pdf. Accessed October 25, 2011.

106. BrandtA 2007 The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York, NY: Basic Books pp170 1

107. MaloneRE 2010 The Tobacco Industry. WiistWH editor. The Bottom Line or Public Health: Tactics Corporations Use to Influence Health and Health Policy, and What We Can Do to Counter Them. New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press. 592 p.

108. BrancaFNikogosianHLobsteinT 2007 The Challenge of Obesity in the WHO European Region and the Strategies for Response. Copenhagen. World Health Organ. Reg. Off. Eur

109. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2001 The Surgeon General's call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General. Available: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/calltoaction/toc.htm. Accessed 14 November 2011.

110. Stein J (February 2011) All aboard for Michelle Obama's childhood obesity campaign. Los Angeles Times. Available: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/booster_shots/2010/02/all-aboard-for-michelle-obamas-childhood-obesity-campaign.html. Accessed 17 October 2011

111. FowlerW 2011 Soda Taxes. The Council of State Governments. Available at http://knowledgecenter.csg.org/drupal/content/soda-taxes. Accessed 17 October 2011.

112. Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy & Obesity 2011 Legislation Database. Available http://www.yaleruddcenter.org/legislation/legislation_trends.aspx. Accessed 17 October 2011.

113. The Coca-Cola Company 2010 Annual Report Pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934. United States Securities and Exchange Commission. Available: http://www.thecoca-colacompany.com/investors/pdfs/form_10K_2009.pdf Accessed 16 April 2010.

114. Dorfman L (27 November 2000) Philip Morris Puts Up Good Citizen Smokescreen. Alternet. Available: http://www.alternet.org/module/printversion/10129. Accessed 14 November 2011

115. Deardorff J (5 February 2012) Critics Pounce on Coke, Pepsi Health Initiatives. Chicago Tribune. Available: http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/ct-met-coke-pepsi-health-20120205,0,5935162,full.story. Accessed 6 February 2012

116. HancockC 2009 Change4Life campaign. Lancet. Available http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2809%2960016-7/fulltext?_eventId=login. Accessed 2 February 2012.

117. Medical Daily (6 October 2011) Obesity Crackdown: Soda Among ‘Biggest Culprits.’ Medical Daily. Available: http://www.medicaldaily.com/news/20111006/7328/obesity-sugary-drinks-sodas-sports-drinks.htm. Accessed 13 October 2011

118. GearhardtA 2009 Food Addiction: an Examination of the Diagnostic Criteria for Dependence. J Addict Med 3: 1–7. Available: http://www.yaleruddcenter.org/resources/upload/docs/what/addiction/FoodAddictionDiagCriteria3.09.pdf. Accessed March 22, 2012.

119. LudwigRSchmidtLABrindisCD 2011 Public health: The toxic truth about sugar. Nature 482: 27–29. Available: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v482/n7383/full/482027a.html. Accessed February 2, 2012.