Detection, Identification and Typization of Dermatophytes by Molecular Genetic Methods

1. ABASTABAR, M., MIRHENDI, H., REZAEI–MATEHKOLAEI, A., et al. Restriction analysis of ß–tubulin gene for differentiation of the common pathogenic dermatophytes. J. Clin. Lab. Anal., 2014, 28, p. 91–96.

2. ABDEL-RAHMAN, S. M., SUGITA, T., GONZÁLEZ, G. M., et al. Divergence among an international population of Trichophyton tonsurans isolates. Mycopathologia, 2010, 169, p. 1–13.

3. ALEXANDER, C., SHANKLAND, G., CARMAN, W., WILLIAMS, C. Introduction of a dermatophyte polymerase chain reaction assay to the diagnostic mycology service in Scotland. Brit. J. Dermatol., 2011, 164, p. 966–972.

4. BAEZA, L. C., MATSUMOTO, M. T., ALMEIDA, A. M. F., MENDES-GIANNINI, M. J. S. Strain differentiation of Trichophyton rubrum by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA and analysis of rDNA nontranscribed spacer. J. Med. Microbiol., 2006, 55, p. 429–436.

5. BEGUIN, H., PYCK, N., HENDRICKX, M., et al. The taxonomic status of Trichophyton quinckeanum and T. interdigitale revisited: a multigene phylogenetic approach. Med. Mycol., 2012, 50, p. 871–882.

6. BEIFUSS, B., BEZOLD, G., GOTTLOBER, P., et al. Direct detection of five common dermatophyte species in clinical samples using a rapid and sensitive 24-h PCR-ELISA technique open to protocol transfer. Mycoses, 2011, 54, p. 137–145.

7. BERGMAN, A., HEIMER, D., KONDORI, N., ENROTH, H. Fast and specific dermatophyte detection by automated DNA extraction and real – time PCR. Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 2013, 19, p. E205–E211.

8. BERGMANS, A., SCHOULS, L., VAN DER ENT, M., et al. Validation of PCR–reverse line blot, a method for rapid detection and identification of nine dermatophyte species in nail, skin and hair samples. Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 2008, 14, p. 778–788.

9. BERGMANS, A., VAN DER ENT, M., KLAASSEN, A., et al. Evaluation of a single–tube real–time PCR for detection and identification of 11 dermatophyte species in clinical material. Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 2010, 16, p. 704–710.

10. BRASCH, J., BECK – JENDROSCHEK, V., GLÄSER, R. Fast and sensitive detection of Trichophyton rubrum in superficial tinea and onychomycosis by use of a direct polymerase chain reaction assay. Mycoses, 2011, 54, p. e313–e317.

11. BRILLOWSKA–DAABROWSKA, A., SWIERKOWSKA, A., LINDHARDT SAUNTE, D. M., ARENDRUP, M. C. Diagnostic PCR tests for Microsporum audouinii, M. canis and Trichophyton infections. Med. Mycol., 2010, 48, p. 486–490.

12. BRILLOWSKA–DABROWSKA, A., NIELSEN, S. S., NIELSEN, H. V., ARENDRUP, M. C. Optimized 5-hour multiplex PCR test for the detection of tinea unguium: performance in a routine PCR laboratory. Med. Mycol., 2010, 48, p. 828–831.

13. BRILLOWSKA–DĄBROWSKA, A., SAUNTE, D. M., ARENDRUP, M. C. Five-hour diagnosis of dermatophyte nail infections with specific detection of Trichophyton rubrum. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2007, 45, p. 1200–1204.

14. CAFARCHIA, C., GASSER, R. B., FIGUEREDO, L. A., et al. An improved molecular diagnostic assay for canine and feline dermatophytosis. Med. Mycol., 2013, 51, p. 136–143.

15. CAFARCHIA, C., IATTA, R., LATROFA, M. S., GRÄSER, Y., OTRANTO, D. Molecular epidemiology, phylogeny and evolution of dermatophytes. Infect. Genet. Evol., 2013, 20, p. 336–351.

16. CANO, J., REZUSTA, A., SOLE, M., et al. Inter-single-sequence-repeat-PCR typing as a new tool for identification of Microsporum canis strains. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2005, 39, p. 17–21.

17. DE ASSIS SANTOS, D., DE CARVALHO ARAUJO, R. A., KOHLER, L. M., et al. Molecular typing and antifungal susceptibility of Trichophyton rubrum isolates from patients with onychomycosis pre- and post-treatment. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, 2007, 29, p. 563–569.

18. DOBROWOLSKA, A., DEBSKA, J., KOZŁOWSKA, M., STĄCZEK, P. Strains differentiation of Microsporum canis by RAPD analysis using (GACA)4 and (ACA)5 primers. Pol. J. Microbiol., 2011, 60, p. 145–148.

19. EBIHARA, M., MAKIMURA, K., SATO, K., ABE, S., TSUBOI, R. Molecular detection of dermatophytes and nondermatophytes in onychomycosis by nested polymerase chain reaction based on 28S ribosomal RNA gene sequences. Brit. J. Dermatol., 2009, 161, p. 1038–1044.

20. FAGGI, E., PINI, G., CAMPISI, E., et al. Application of PCR to distinguish common species of dermatophytes. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2001, 39, p. 3382–3385.

21. FARI, E., GRÄSER, Y. An epidemic of tinea corporis caused by Trichophyton tonsurans among children (wrestlers) in Germany. Mycoses, 2000, 43, p. 191–196.

22. FRÉALLE, E., RODRIGUE, M., GANTOIS, N., et al. Phylogenetic analysis of Trichophyton mentagrophytes human and animal isolates based on MnSOD and ITS sequence comparison. Microbiology, 2007, 153, p. 3466–3477.

23. GAEDIGK, A., GAEDIGK, R., ABDEL-RAHMAN, S. M. Genetic heterogeneity in the rRNA gene locus of Trichophyton tonsurans. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2003, 41, p. 5478–5487.

24. GARG, J., TILAK, R., SINGH, S., et al. Evaluation of pan-dermatophyte nested PCR in diagnosis of onychomycosis. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2007, 45, p. 3443–3445.

25. GARG, J., TILAK, R., GARG, A., et al. Rapid detection of dermatophytes from skin and hair. BMC Res. Notes, 2009, 2, p. 60.

26. GRÄSER, Y., EL FARI, M., PRESBER, W., STERRY, W., TIETZ, H. J. Identification of common dermatophytes (Trichophyton, Microsporum, Epidermophyton) using polymerase chain reactions. Brit. J. Dermatol., 1998, 138, p. 576–582.

27. GRÄSER, Y., EL FARI, M., VILGALYS, R., et al. Phylogeny and taxonomy of the family Arthrodermataceae (dermatophytes) using sequence analysis of the ribosomal ITS region. Med. Mycol., 1999, 37, p. 105–114.

28. GRÄSER, Y., KUIJPERS, A. F. A., PRESBER, W., DE HOOG, G. S. Molecular taxonomy of Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. tonsurans. Med. Mycol., 1999, 37, p. 315–330.

29. GRÄSER, Y., KUIJPERS, A. F. A., PRESBER, W., DE HOOG, G. S. Molecular taxonomy of the Trichophyton rubrum complex. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2000, 38, p. 3329–3336.

30. GRÄSER, Y., DE HOOG, S., SUMMERBELL, R. Dermatophytes: recognizing species of clonal fungi. Med. Mycol., 2006, 44, p. 199–209.

31. GRÄSER, Y., FRÖHLICH, J., PRESBER, W., DE HOOG, S. Microsatellite markers reveal geographic population differentiation in Trichophyton rubrum. J. Med. Microbiol., 2007, 56, p. 1058–1065.

32. GRÄSER, Y., SCOTT, J., SUMMERBELL, R. The new species concept in dermatophytes – a polyphasic approach. Mycopathologia, 2008, 166, p. 239–256.

33. GUPTA, A., ZAMAN, M., SINGH, J. Fast and sensitive detection of Trichophyton rubrum DNA from the nail samples of patients with onychomycosis by a double–round polymerase chain reaction – based assay. Brit. J. Dermatol., 2007, 157, p. 698–703.

34. GUTZMER, R., MOMMERT, S., KÜTTLER, U., WERFEL, T., KAPP, A. Rapid identification and differentiation of fungal DNA in dermatological specimens by Light Cycler PCR. J. Med. Microbiol., 2004, 53, p. 1207–1214.

35. HRYNCEWICZ–GWOZDZ, A., JAGIELSKI, T., DOBROWOLSKA, A., SZEPIETOWSKI, J. C., BARAN, E. Identification and differentiation of Trichophyton rubrum clinical isolates using PCR-RFLP and RAPD methods. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 2011, 30, p. 727–731.

36. HRYNCEWICZ–GWOZDZ, A., JAGIELSKI, T., SADAKIERSKA-CHUDY, A., et al. Molecular typing of Trichophyton rubrum clinical isolates from Poland. Mycoses, 2011, 54, p. e726–736.

37. HUBKA, V., KUBATOVA, A., MALLATOVA, N., et al. Rare and new aetiological agents revealed among 178 clinical Aspergillus strains obtained from Czech patients and characterised by molecular sequencing. Med. Mycol., 2012, 50, p. 601–610.

38. HUBKA, V., KOLAŘÍK, M., KUBÁTOVÁ, A., PETERSON, S. W. Taxonomical revision of the genus Eurotium and transfer of species to Aspergillus. Mycologia, 2013, 105, p. 912–937.

39. HUBKA, V., CMOKOVA, A., SKOREPOVA, M., MIKULA, P., KOLARIK, M. Trichophyton onychocola sp. nov. isolated from human nail. Med. Mycol., 2014, 52, p. 285–292.

40. HUBKA, V., DOBIASOVA, S., DOBIAS, R., KOLARIK, M. Microsporum aenigmaticum sp. nov. from M. gypseum complex, isolated as a cause of tinea corporis. Med. Mycol., 2014, 52, p. 387–396.

41. JACKSON, C. J., BARTON, R. C., EVANS, E. G. V. Species identification and strain differentiation of dermatophyte fungi by analysis of ribosomal-DNA intergenic spacer regions. J. Clin. Microbiol., 1999, 37, p. 931–936.

42. JACKSON, C. J., BARTON, R. C., KELLY, S. L., EVANS, E. G. V. Strain identification of Trichophyton rubrum by specific amplification of subrepeat elements in the ribosomal DNA nontranscribed spacer. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2000, 38, p. 4527–4534.

43. JENSEN, R. H., ARENDRUP, M. C. Molecular diagnosis of dermatophyte infections. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis., 2012, 25, p. 126–134.

44. KAC, G., BOUGNOUX, M., FEUILHADE DE CHAUVIN, M., SENE, S., DEROUIN, F. Genetic diversity among Trichophyton mentagrophytes isolates using random amplified polymorphic DNA method. Brit. J. Dermatol., 1999, 140, p. 839–844.

45. KAMIYA, A., KIKUCHI, A., TOMITA, Y., KANBE, T. PCR and PCR–RFLP techniques targeting the DNA topoisomerase II gene for rapid clinical diagnosis of the etiologic agent of dermatophytosis. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2004, 34, p. 35–48.

46. KANBE, T., SUZUKI, Y., KAMIYA, A., et al. PCR-based identification of common dermatophyte species using primer sets specific for the DNA topoisomerase II genes. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2003, 32, p. 151–161.

47. KANO, R., NAKAMURA, Y., WATARI, T., et al. Molecular analysis of chitin synthase 1 (CHS1) gene sequences of Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex and T. rubrum. Curr. Microbiol., 1998, 37, p. 236–239.

48. KANO, R., HIRAI, A., MURAMATSU, M., WATARI, T., HASEGAWA, A. Direct detection of dermatophytes in skin samples based on sequences of the chitin synthase 1 (CHS1) gene. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 2003, 65, p. 267–270.

49. KARDJEVA, V., SUMMERBELL, R., KANTARDJIEV, T., et al. Forty-eight-hour diagnosis of onychomycosis with subtyping of Trichophyton rubrum strains. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2006, 44, p. 1419–1427.

50. KASZUBIAK, A., KLEIN, S., DE HOOG, G., GRÄSER, Y. Population structure and evolutionary origins of Microsporum canis, M. ferrugineum and M. audouinii. Infect. Genet. Evol., 2004, 4, p. 179–186.

51. KAWASAKI, M., ANZAWA, K., WAKASA, A., et al. Different genes can result in different phylogenetic relationships in Trichophyton species. Jap. J. Med. Mycol., 2008, 49, p. 311–318.

52. KAWASAKI, M., ANZAWA, K., USHIGAMI, T., KAWANISHI, J., MOCHIZUKI, T. Multiple gene analyses are necessary to understand accurate phylogenetic relationships among Trichophyton species. Med. Mycol. J., 2011, 52, p. 245–254.

53. KHOSRAVI, A., BEHZAD, F., SABOKBAR, A., et al. Molecular typing of Epidermophyton floccosum isolated from patients with dermatophytosis by RAPD–PCR. J Basic Microbiol., 2010, 50, p. S68–S73.

54. KIM, J., TAKAHASHI, Y., TANAKA, R., et al. Identification and subtyping of Trichophyton mentagrophytes by random amplified polymorphic DNA. Mycoses, 2001, 44, p. 157–165.

55. KIM, J. Y., CHOE, Y. B., AHN, K. J., LEE, Y. W. Identification of dermatophytes using multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Ann. Dermatol., 2011, 23, p. 304–312.

56. KONDORI, N., ABRAHAMSSON, A. L., ATAOLLAHY, N., WENNERĀS, C. Comparison of a new commercial test, Dermatophyte-PCR kit, with conventional methods for rapid detection and identification of Trichophyton rubrum in nail specimens. Med. Mycol., 2010, 48, p. 1005–1008.

57. KONDORI, N., TEHRANI, P. A., STRÖMBECK, L., FAERGEMANN, J. Comparison of Dermatophyte PCR kit with conventional methods for detection of dermatophytes in skin specimens. Mycopathologia, 2013, 176, p. 237–241.

58. LI, X.-F., WEI, T., HONG, W., et al. Direct detection and differentiation of causative fungi of onychomycosis by multiplex polymerase chain reaction-based assay. Eur. J. Dermatol., 2011, 21, p. 37–42.

59. LI, Y. C., KOROL, A. B., FAHIMA, T., BEILES, A., NEVO, E. Microsatellites: genomic distribution, putative functions and mutational mechanisms: a review. Mol. Ecol., 2002, 11, p. 2453–2465.

60. LITZ, C., CAVAGNOLO, R. Polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of onychomycosis: a large, single–institute study. Brit. J. Dermatol., 2010, 163, p. 511–514.

61. LIU, D., COLOE, S., PEDERSEN, J., BAIRD, R. Use of arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction to differentiate Trichophyton dermatophytes. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 1996, 136, p. 147–150.

62. LIU, D., COLOE, S., BAIRD, R., PEDERSEN, J. Rapid mini-preparation of fungal DNA for PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2000, 38, p. 471–471.

63. LIU, D., COLOE, S., BAIRD, R., PEDERSEN, J. Application of PCR to the identification of dermatophyte fungi. J. Med. Microbiol., 2000, 49, p. 493–497.

64. LOEFFLER, J., HEBART, H., BIALEK, R., et al. Contaminations occurring in fungal PCR assays. J. Clin. Microbiol., 1999, 37, p. 1200–1202.

65. MEHLIG, L., GARVE, C., RITSCHEL, A., et al. Clinical evaluation of a novel commercial multiplex–based PCR diagnostic test for differential diagnosis of dermatomycoses. Mycoses, 2014, 57, p. 27–34.

66. MIYAJIMA, Y., SATOH, K., UCHIDA, T., et al. Rapid real--time diagnostic PCR for Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes in patients with tinea unguium and tinea pedis using specific fluorescent probes. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2013, 69, p. 229–235.

67. MOCHIZUKI, T., SUGIE, N., UEHARA, M. Random amplification of polymorphic DNA is useful for the differentiation of several anthropophilic dermatophytes. Mycoses, 1997, 40, p. 405–409.

68. MOCHIZUKI, T., KAWASAKI, M., ISHIZAKI, H., et al. Molecular epidemiology of Arthroderma benhamiae, an emerging pathogen of dermatophytoses in Japan, by polymorphisms of the non-transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal DNA. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2001, 27, p. 14–20.

69. MOCHIZUKI, T., ISHIZAKI, H., BARTON, R. C., et al. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of ribosomal DNA intergenic regions is useful for differentiating strains of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2003, 41, p. 4583–4588.

70. MOCHIZUKI, T., KAWASAKI, M., TANABE, H., et al. Molecular epidemiology of Trichophyton tonsurans isolated in Japan using RFLP analysis of non-transcribed spacer regions of ribosomal RNA genes. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis., 2007, 60, p. 188–192.

71. NAGAO, K., SUGITA, T., OUCHI, T., NISHIKAWA, T. Identification of Trichophyton rubrum by nested PCR analysis from paraffin embedded specimen in trichophytia profunda acuta of the glabrous skin. Jap. J. Med. Mycol., 2005, 46, p. 129–132.

72. NENOFF, P., ERHARD, M., SIMON, J. C., et al. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry-a rapid method for the identification of dermatophyte species. Med. Mycol., 2013, 51, p. 17–24.

73. NINET, B., JAN, I., BONTEMS, O., et al. Identification of dermatophyte species by 28s ribosomal DNA sequencing with a commercial kit. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2003, 41, p. 826–830.

74. OHST, T., DE HOOG, S., PRESBER, W., STAVRAKIEVA, V., GRÄSER, Y. Origins of microsatellite diversity in the Trichophyton rubrum-T. violaceum clade (dermatophytes). J. Clin. Microbiol., 2004, 42, p. 4444–4448.

75. OKEKE, C. N., TSUBOI, R., KAWAI, M., HIRUMA, M., OGAWA, H. Isolation of an intron-containing partial seguence of the gene encoding dermatophyte actin (ACT) and detection of a fragment of the transcript by reverse transcription-nested PCR as a means of assessing the viability of dermatophytes in skin scales. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2001, 39, p. 101–106.

76. PASQUETTI, M., PEANO, A., SOGLIA, D., et al. Development and validation of a microsatellite marker-based method for tracing infections by Microsporum canis. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2013, 70, p. 123–129.

77. REZAEI–MATEHKOLAEI, A., MAKIMURA, K., DE HOOG, G. S., et al. Discrimination of Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton equinum by PCR-RFLP and by beta-tubulin and translation elongation factor 1-alpha sequencing. Med. Mycol., 2012, 50, p. 760–764.

78. REZAEI–MATEHKOLAEI, A., MAKIMURA, K., DE HOOG, G. S., et al. Multilocus differentiation of the related dermatophytes Microsporum canis, Microsporum ferrugineum and Microsporum audouinii. J. Med. Microbiol., 2012, 61, p. 57–63.

79. REZAEI–MATEHKOLAEI, A., MAKIMURA, K., SHIDFAR, M., et al. Use of single-enzyme PCR-restriction digestion barcode targeting the internal transcribed spacers (ITS rDNA) to identify dermatophyte species. Iran J. Public Health, 2012, 41, p. 82–94.

80. REZAEI-MATEHKOLAEI, A., MAKIMURA, K., DE HOOG, S., et al. Molecular epidemiology of dermatophytosis in Tehran, Iran, a clinical and microbial survey. Med. Mycol., 2013, 51, p. 203–207.

81. SATO, T., TAKAYANAGI, A., NAGAO, K., et al. Simple PCR-based DNA microarray system to identify human pathogenic fungi in skin. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2010, 48, p. 2357–2364.

82. SHARMA, R., DE HOOG, S., PRESBER, W., GRASER, Y. A virulent genotype of Microsporum canis is responsible for the majority of human infections. J. Med. Microbiol., 2007, 56, p. 1377–1385.

83. SHARMA, R., PRESBER, W., RAJAK, R. C., GRÄSER, Y. Molecular detection of Microsporum persicolor in soil suggesting widespread dispersal in central India. Med. Mycol., 2008, 46, p. 67–73.

84. SPESSO, M., NUNCIRA, C., BURSTEIN, V., et al. Microsatellite-primed PCR and random primer amplification polymorphic DNA for the identification and epidemiology of dermatophytes. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 2013, 32, p. 1009–1015.

85. SUMMERBELL, R. C., MOORE, M. K., STARINK-WILLEMSE, M., VAN IPEREN, A. ITS barcodes for Trichophyton tonsurans and T. equinum. Med. Mycol., 2007, 45, p. 193–200.

86. TAKEDA, K., NISHIBU, A., ANZAWA, K., MOCHIZUKI, T. Molecular epidemiology of a major subgroup of Arthroderma benhamiae isolated in Japan by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the non-transcribed spacer region of ribosomal RNA gene. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis., 2012, 65, p. 233–239.

87. UCHIDA, T., MAKIMURA, K., ISHIHARA, K., et al. Comparative study of direct polymerase chain reaction, microscopic examination and culture-based morphological methods for detection and identification of dermatophytes in nail and skin samples. J. Dermatol., 2009, 36, p. 202–208.

88. VERRIER, J., KRÄHENBÜHL, L., BONTEMS, O., et al. Dermatophyte identification in skin and hair samples using a simple and reliable nested polymerase chain reaction assay. Brit. J. Dermatol., 2013, 168, p. 295–301.

89. WAKASA, A., ANZAWA, K., KAWASAKI, M., MOCHIZUKI, T. Molecular typing of Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale isolated in a university hospital in Japan based on the non–transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal RNA gene. J. Dermatol., 2010, 37, p. 431–440.

90. WHITE, T. C., OLIVER, B. G., GRÄSER, Y., HENN, M. R. Generating and testing molecular hypotheses in the dermatophytes. Eukaryot Cell, 2008, 7, p. 1238–1245.

91. WISSELINK, G., VAN ZANTEN, E., KOOISTRA-SMID, A. Trapped in keratin; a comparison of dermatophyte detection in nail, skin and hair samples directly from clinical samples using culture and real-time PCR. J. Microbiol. Methods, 2011, 85, p. 62–66.

92. YANG, X., SUGITA, T., TAKASHIMA, M., et al. Differentiation of Trichophyton rubrum clinical isolates from Japanese and Chinese patients by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA and DNA sequence analysis of the non-transcribed spacer region of the rRNA gene. J. Dermatol. Sci., 2009, 54, p. 38–42.

93. YAZDANPARAST, A., JACKSON, C. J., BARTON, R. C., EVANS, E. Molecular strain typing of Trichophyton rubrum indicates multiple strain involvement in onychomycosis. Brit. J. Dermatol., 2003, 148, p. 51–54.

94. YU, J., WAN, Z., CHEN, W., WANG, W., LI, R. Molecular typing study of the Microsporum canis strains isolated from an outbreak of tinea capitis in school. Mycopathologia, 2004, 157, p. 37–41.

95. YÜKSEL, T., ?LKIT, M. Identification of rare macroconidia-producing dermatophytic fungi by real-time PCR. Med. Mycol., 2012, 50, p. 346–352.

96. ZHONG, Z., LI, R., LI, D., WANG, D. Typing of common dermatophytes by random amplification of polymorphic DNA. Jap. J. Med. Mycol., 1997, 38, p. 239–246.