Effect of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene on the Prevention of Trachoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Background:
Trachoma is the world's leading cause of infectious blindness. The World Health Organization (WHO) has endorsed the SAFE strategy in order to eliminate blindness due to trachoma by 2020 through “surgery,” “antibiotics,” “facial cleanliness,” and “environmental improvement.” While the S and A components have been widely implemented, evidence and specific targets are lacking for the F and E components, of which water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are critical elements. Data on the impact of WASH on trachoma are needed to support policy and program recommendations. Our objective was to systematically review the literature and conduct meta-analyses where possible to report the effects of WASH conditions on trachoma and identify research gaps.
Methods and Findings:
We systematically searched PubMed, Embase, ISI Web of Knowledge, MedCarib, Lilacs, REPIDISCA, DESASTRES, and African Index Medicus databases through October 27, 2013 with no restrictions on language or year of publication. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they reported a measure of the effect of WASH on trachoma, either active disease indicated by observed signs of trachomatous inflammation or Chlamydia trachomatis infection diagnosed using PCR. We identified 86 studies that reported a measure of the effect of WASH on trachoma. To evaluate study quality, we developed a set of criteria derived from the GRADE methodology. Publication bias was assessed using funnel plots. If three or more studies reported measures of effect for a comparable WASH exposure and trachoma outcome, we conducted a random-effects meta-analysis. We conducted 15 meta-analyses for specific exposure-outcome pairs. Access to sanitation was associated with lower trachoma as measured by the presence of trachomatous inflammation-follicular or trachomatous inflammation-intense (TF/TI) (odds ratio [OR] 0.85, 95% CI 0.75–0.95) and C. trachomatis infection (OR 0.67, 95% CI 0.55–0.78). Having a clean face was significantly associated with reduced odds of TF/TI (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.32–0.52), as were facial cleanliness indicators lack of ocular discharge (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.23–0.61) and lack of nasal discharge (OR 0.62, 95% CI 0.52–0.72). Facial cleanliness indicators were also associated with reduced odds of C. trachomatis infection: lack of ocular discharge (OR 0.40, 95% CI 0.31–0.49) and lack of nasal discharge (OR 0.56, 95% CI 0.37–0.76). Other hygiene factors found to be significantly associated with reduced TF/TI included face washing at least once daily (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.57–0.96), face washing at least twice daily (OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.80–0.90), soap use (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.59–0.93), towel use (OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.53–0.78), and daily bathing practices (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.53–0.99). Living within 1 km of a water source was not found to be significantly associated with TF/TI or C. trachomatis infection, and the use of sanitation facilities was not found to be significantly associated with TF/TI.
Conclusions:
We found strong evidence to support F and E components of the SAFE strategy. Though limitations included moderate to high heterogenity, low study quality, and the lack of standard definitions, these findings support the importance of WASH in trachoma elimination strategies and the need for the development of standardized approaches to measuring WASH in trachoma control programs.
Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary
Vyšlo v časopise:
Effect of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene on the Prevention of Trachoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Med 11(2): e32767. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001605
Kategorie:
Research Article
prolekare.web.journal.doi_sk:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001605
Souhrn
Background:
Trachoma is the world's leading cause of infectious blindness. The World Health Organization (WHO) has endorsed the SAFE strategy in order to eliminate blindness due to trachoma by 2020 through “surgery,” “antibiotics,” “facial cleanliness,” and “environmental improvement.” While the S and A components have been widely implemented, evidence and specific targets are lacking for the F and E components, of which water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are critical elements. Data on the impact of WASH on trachoma are needed to support policy and program recommendations. Our objective was to systematically review the literature and conduct meta-analyses where possible to report the effects of WASH conditions on trachoma and identify research gaps.
Methods and Findings:
We systematically searched PubMed, Embase, ISI Web of Knowledge, MedCarib, Lilacs, REPIDISCA, DESASTRES, and African Index Medicus databases through October 27, 2013 with no restrictions on language or year of publication. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they reported a measure of the effect of WASH on trachoma, either active disease indicated by observed signs of trachomatous inflammation or Chlamydia trachomatis infection diagnosed using PCR. We identified 86 studies that reported a measure of the effect of WASH on trachoma. To evaluate study quality, we developed a set of criteria derived from the GRADE methodology. Publication bias was assessed using funnel plots. If three or more studies reported measures of effect for a comparable WASH exposure and trachoma outcome, we conducted a random-effects meta-analysis. We conducted 15 meta-analyses for specific exposure-outcome pairs. Access to sanitation was associated with lower trachoma as measured by the presence of trachomatous inflammation-follicular or trachomatous inflammation-intense (TF/TI) (odds ratio [OR] 0.85, 95% CI 0.75–0.95) and C. trachomatis infection (OR 0.67, 95% CI 0.55–0.78). Having a clean face was significantly associated with reduced odds of TF/TI (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.32–0.52), as were facial cleanliness indicators lack of ocular discharge (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.23–0.61) and lack of nasal discharge (OR 0.62, 95% CI 0.52–0.72). Facial cleanliness indicators were also associated with reduced odds of C. trachomatis infection: lack of ocular discharge (OR 0.40, 95% CI 0.31–0.49) and lack of nasal discharge (OR 0.56, 95% CI 0.37–0.76). Other hygiene factors found to be significantly associated with reduced TF/TI included face washing at least once daily (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.57–0.96), face washing at least twice daily (OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.80–0.90), soap use (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.59–0.93), towel use (OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.53–0.78), and daily bathing practices (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.53–0.99). Living within 1 km of a water source was not found to be significantly associated with TF/TI or C. trachomatis infection, and the use of sanitation facilities was not found to be significantly associated with TF/TI.
Conclusions:
We found strong evidence to support F and E components of the SAFE strategy. Though limitations included moderate to high heterogenity, low study quality, and the lack of standard definitions, these findings support the importance of WASH in trachoma elimination strategies and the need for the development of standardized approaches to measuring WASH in trachoma control programs.
Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary
Zdroje
1. PascoliniD, MariottiSP (2012) Global estimates of visual impairment: 2010. Br J Ophthalmol 96: 614–618.
2. WHO (2013) Weekly Epidemiological Record. 24: 241–256.
3. HuVH, Harding-EschEM, BurtonMJ, BaileyRL, KadimpeulJ, et al. (2010) Epidemiology and control of trachoma: systematic review. Trop Med Int Health 15: 673–691.
4. BurtonMJ, MabeyDC (2009) The global burden of trachoma: a review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 3: e460.
5. MurrayCJ, VosT, LozanoR, NaghaviM, FlaxmanAD, et al. (2013) Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380: 2197–2223.
6. International Coalition for Trachoma Control (2011) 2020 INSight: the end in sight. Atlanta. 16 p.
7. MariottiSP, PascoliniD, Rose-NussbaumerJ (2009) Trachoma: global magnitude of a preventable cause of blindness. Br J Ophthalmol 93: 563–568.
8. WHO (2003) Report of the second scientific meeting on trachoma. Geneva: Alliance for the Global Elimination of Blinding Trachoma by 2020.
9. WHO (1998) World Health Assembly Resolution WHA 51.11. Geneva: World Health Organization.
10. WHO (2012) Weekly Epidemiological Record. 17: 161–168.
11. International Coalition for Trachoma Control (2011) 2020 INSight: the end in sight. Atlanta.
12. LavettDK, LansinghVC, CarterMJ, EckertKA, SilvaJC (2013) Will the SAFE strategy be sufficient to eliminate trachoma by 2020? Puzzlements and possible solutions. Sci World J 2013
13. PrüssA, MariottiSP (2000) Preventing trachoma through environmental sanitation: a review of the evidence base. Bull World Health Organ 78: 267–273.
14. EmersonPM, CairncrossS, BaileyRL, MabeyD (2000) Review of the evidence base for the ‘F’and ‘E’components of the SAFE strategy for trachoma control. Trop Med Int Health 5: 515–527.
15. EmersonP, KollmannM, MacArthurC, BushS, HaddadD (2012) SAFE strategy for blinding trachoma addresses sanitation, the other half of MDG7. Lancet 380: 27–28.
16. Anonymous (2012) Progress in sanitation needed for neglected tropical diseases. Lancet 379: 978.
17. FreemanMC, OgdenS, JacobsonJ, AbbottD, AddissDG, et al. (2013) Integration of water, sanitation, and hygiene for the prevention and control of neglected tropical diseases: a rationale for inter-sectoral collaboration. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7: e2439.
18. RabiuM, AlhassanMB, EjereHO, EvansJR (2012) Environmental sanitary interventions for preventing active trachoma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2: CD004003.
19. EjereHO, AlhassanMB, RabiuM (2012) Face washing promotion for preventing active trachoma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4: CD003659.
20. EsreySA, PotashJB, RobertsL, ShiffC (1991) Effects of improved water supply and sanitation on ascariasis, diarrhoea, dracunculiasis, hookworm infection, schistosomiasis, and trachoma. Bull World Health Organ 69: 609–621.
21. KuperH, SolomonAW, BuchanJ, ZondervanM, FosterA, et al. (2003) A critical review of the SAFE strategy for the prevention of blinding trachoma. Lancet Infect Dis 3: 372–381.
22. PrussA, MariottiSP (2000) Preventing trachoma through environmental sanitation: a review of the evidence base. Bull World Health Organ 78: 258–266.
23. StroupDF, BerlinJA, MortonSC, OlkinI, WilliamsonGD, et al. (2000) Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: a proposal for reporting. Meta-analysis Of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) group. JAMA 283: 2008–2012.
24. ThyleforsB, DawsonCR, JonesBR, WestS, TaylorHR (1987) A simple system for the assessment of trachoma and its complications. Bull World Health Organ 65: 477.
25. ThyleforsB, DawsonCR, JonesBR, WestSK, TaylorHR (1987) A simple system for the assessment of trachoma and its complications. Bull World Health Organ 65: 477–483.
26. AtkinsD, BestD, BrissPA, EcclesM, Falck-YtterY, et al. (2004) Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 328: 1490.
27. Higgins JP, Green S, Collaboration C (2008) Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions: Wiley Online Library.
28. NeyeloffJL, FuchsSC, MoreiraLB (2012) Meta-analyses and Forest plots using a microsoft excel spreadsheet: step-by-step guide focusing on descriptive data analysis. BMC Res Notes 5: 52.
29. De SoleG, MartelE (1988) Test of the prevention of blindness health education programme for Ethiopian primary schools. Int Ophthalmol 11: 255–259.
30. HedgesLV, VeveaJL (1998) Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychol Methods 3: 486–504.
31. White G, Bradley D, White A (1972) Drawers of water: domestic water use in East Africa. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
32. Cairncross S, Feachem R (1993) Environmental health engineering in the tropics: an introductory text. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
33. UNICEF, WHO (2011) Drinking water equity, safety and sustainability: thematic report on drinking water 2011. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation.
34. PolackS, KuperH, SolomonAW, MassaePA, AbueloC, et al. (2006) The relationship between prevalence of active trachoma, water availability and its use in a Tanzanian village. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100: 1075–1083.
35. CruzAA, MedinaNH, IbrahimMM, SouzaRM, GomesUA, et al. (2008) Prevalence of trachoma in a population of the upper Rio Negro basin and risk factors for active disease. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 15: 272–278.
36. KaluaK, ChirwaT, KalilaniL, AbbenyiS, MukakaM, et al. (2010) Prevalence and risk factors for trachoma in central and southern Malawi. PLoS One 5: e9067.
37. StollerNE, GebreT, AyeleB, ZerihunM, AssefaY, et al. (2011) Efficacy of latrine promotion on emergence of infection with ocular Chlamydia trachomatis after mass antibiotic treatment: a cluster-randomized trial. Int Health 3: 75–84.
38. WestS, MunozB, LynchM, KayongoyaA, ChilangwaZ, et al. (1995) Impact of face-washing on trachoma in Kongwa, Tanzania. Lancet 345: 155–158.
39. KeenanJD, LakewT, AlemayehuW, MeleseM, HouseJI, et al. (2011) Slow resolution of clinically active trachoma following successful mass antibiotic treatments. Arch Ophthalmol 129: 512–513.
40. Boldt J (1904) Trachoma. Harvard University: Hodder and Stoughton.
41. Solomon AW (2006) Trachoma control: a guide for programme managers: World Health Organization, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, International Trachoma Initiative.
42. Taylor HR (2008) Trachoma: a blinding scourge from the Bronze age to the twenty-first century. Australia: Center for Eye Research.
43. BurtonMJ (2007) Trachoma: an overview. Br Med Bull 84: 99–116.
44. WrightJ, GundryS, ConroyR (2004) Household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use. Trop Med Int Health 9: 106–117.
45. UN (2012) The Millenium Development Goals Report 2012. New York: United Nations.
46. WHO (2012) UN-water global analysis and assessment of sanitation and drinking-water (GLAAS) 2012 report: the challenge of extending and sustaining services. Geneva: World Health Organization.
47. WHO/UNICEF (2013) Progress on sanitation and drinking-water: 2013 update. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation.
48. AlemuY, BejigaA (2004) The impact of water supply on trachoma prevalence. Ethiop Med J 42: 179–184.
49. AssaadFA, Maxwell-LyonsF, SundaresanT (1969) Use of local variations in trachoma endemicity in depicting interplay between socio-economic conditions and disease. Bull World Health Organ 41: 181–194.
50. CairncrossS, CliffJL (1987) Water use and health in Mueda, Mozambique. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81: 51–54.
51. CaligarisLSA, MorimotoWTM, MedinaNH, WaldmanEA (2006) Trachoma prevalence and risk factors among preschool children in a central area of the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 13: 365–370.
52. ChumbleyLC, ThomsonIM (1988) Epidemiology of trachoma in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Eye (Lond) 2 (Pt 5) 463–470.
53. HoechsmannA, MetcalfeN, KanjalotiS, GodiaH, MtamboO, et al. (2001) Reduction of trachoma in the absence of antibiotic treatment: evidence from a population-based survey in Malawi. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 8: 145–153.
54. MarshallCL (1968) The relationship between trachoma and piped water in a developing area. Arch Environ Health 17: 215–220.
55. PolackSR, SolomonAW, AlexanderND, MassaePA, SafariS, et al. (2005) The household distribution of trachoma in a Tanzanian village: an application of GIS to the study of trachoma. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99: 218–225.
56. WestSK, MunozB, TurnerVM, MmbagaBB, TaylorHR (1991) The epidemiology of trachoma in central Tanzania. Int J Epidemiol 20: 1088–1092.
57. CourtrightP, SheppardJ, LaneS, SadekA, SchachterJ, et al. (1991) Latrine ownership as a protective factor in inflammatory trachoma in Egypt. Br J Ophthalmol 75: 322–325.
58. EmersonPM, LindsaySW, AlexanderN, BahM, DibbaSM, et al. (2004) Role of flies and provision of latrines in trachoma control: cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 363: 1093–1098.
59. HaileM, TadesseZ, GebreselassieS, AyeleB, GebreT, et al. (2013) The association between latrine use and trachoma: a secondary cohort analysis from a randomized clinical trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 717–720.
60. MontgomeryMA, DesaiMM, ElimelechM (2010) Comparing the effectiveness of shared versus private latrines in preventing trachoma in rural Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 693–695.
61. ReillyLA, FavachoJ, GarcezLM, CourtenayO (2007) Preliminary evidence that synanthropic flies contribute to the transmission of trachoma- causing Chlamydia trachomatis in Latin America. Cad Saude Publica 23: 1682–1688.
62. AleneGD, AbebeS (2000) Prevalence of risk factors for trachoma in a rural locality of north-western Ethiopia. East Afr Med J 77: 308–312.
63. GowerEW, SolomonAW, BurtonMJ, AguirreA, MunozB, et al. (2006) Chlamydial positivity of nasal discharge at baseline is associated with ocular chlamydial positivity 2 months following azithromycin treatment. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 47: 4767–4771.
64. GuraksinA, GulluluG (1997) Prevalence of trachoma in eastern Turkey. Int J Epidemiol 26: 436–442.
65. HagiM, SchemannJF, MaunyF, MomoG, SackoD, et al. (2010) Active trachoma among children in Mali: Clustering and environmental risk factors. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e583.
66. HallA, KassaT, DemissieT, DegefieT, LeeS (2008) National survey of the health and nutrition of schoolchildren in Ethiopia. Trop Med Int Health 13: 1518–1526.
67. KhandujaS, JhanjiV, SharmaN, VashistP, MurthyGVS, et al. (2009) Rapid assessment of trachoma among children living in rural northern India. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 16: 206–211.
68. KingJD, NgondiJ, KastenJ, DialloMO, ZhuH, et al. (2011) Randomised trial of face-washing to develop a standard definition of a clean face for monitoring trachoma control programmes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 105: 7–16.
69. KoizumiIK, MedinaNH, D'AmaralRKK, MorimotoWTM, CaligarisLSA, et al. (2005) Prevalence of trachoma in preschool and schoolchildren in the city of Sao Paulo. Revista de Saude Publica 39: 937–942.
70. RobaAA, PatelD, ZondervanM (2012) Risk of trachoma in a SAFE intervention area. Int Ophthalmol 1–7.
71. WestSK, CongdonN, KatalaS, MeleL (1991) Facial cleanliness and risk of trachoma in families. Arch Ophthalmol 109: 855–857.
72. WilsonM, Keyvan-LarijaniE, Millan-VelascoF, TielschJM, TaylorHR (1987) The epidemiology of trachoma in Chiapas (Mexico). Revue international du trachome et de pathologie oculaire tropicale et subtropicale et de sante publique : organe de la Ligue contre le trachome avec la collaboration de l'International Organization against Trachoma ...
159–174.
73. Ezz al ArabG, TawfikN, El GendyR, AnwarW, CourtrightP (2001) The burden of trachoma in the rural Nile Delta of Egypt: a survey of Menofiya governorate. Br J Ophthalmol 85: 1406–1410.
74. KatzJ, WestKPJr, KhatrySK, LeClerqSC, PradhanEK, et al. (1996) Prevalence and risk factors for trachoma in Sarlahi district, Nepal. Br J Ophthalmol 80: 1037–1041.
75. LunaEJ, MedinaNH, OliveiraMB, de BarrosOM, VranjacA, et al. (1992) Epidemiology of trachoma in Bebedouro State of Sao Paulo, Brazil: prevalence and risk factors. Int J Epidemiol 21: 169–177.
76. MontgomeryMA, DesaiMM, ElimelechM (2010) Assessment of latrine use and quality and association with risk of trachoma in rural Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 104: 283–289.
77. NgondiJ, ReacherMH, MatthewsFE, BrayneC, GatpanG, et al. (2009) Risk factors for trachomatous trichiasis in children: cross-sectional household surveys in Southern Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 103: 305–314.
78. SallamTA, Raja'aYA, Al-ZubieryTK, Al-ShaibaniKS, Al-ShamiriAA, et al. (2003) Chlamydia trachomatis infections among Yemeni school pupils in relation to environmental conditions. Saudi Med J 24: 84–87.
79. ZerihunN (1997) Trachoma in Jimma zone, south western Ethiopia. Trop Med Int Health 2: 1115–1121.
80. BaggaleyRF, SolomonAW, KuperH, PolackS, MassaePA, et al. (2006) Distance to water source and altitude in relation to active trachoma in Rombo district, Tanzania. Trop Med Int Health 11: 220–227.
81. D'AmaralRK, CardosoMR, MedinaNH, CunhaIC, WaldmanEA (2005) [Factors associated with trachoma in a low-endemic area in southeast Brazil]. Cad Saude Publica 21: 1701–1708.
82. HsiehYH, BoboLD, QuinnTC, WestSK (2000) Risk factors for trachoma: 6-year follow-up of children aged 1 and 2 years. Am J Epidemiol 152: 204–211.
83. SchemannJF, LafflyD, SackoD, ZephakG, MalvyD (2007) Trichiasis and geoclimatic factors in Mali. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 996–1003.
84. TaylorHR, VelascoFM, SommerA (1985) The ecology of trachoma: an epidemiological study in southern Mexico. Bull World Health Organ 63: 559–567.
85. WestS, LynchM, TurnerV, MunozB, RapozaP, et al. (1989) Water availability and trachoma. Bull World Health Organ 67: 71–75.
86. WestSK, RapozaP, MunozB, KatalaS, TaylorHR (1991) Epidemiology of ocular chlamydial infection in a trachoma-hyperendemic area. J Infect Dis 163: 752–756.
87. WestSK, MunozB, LynchM, KayongoyaA, MmbagaBB, et al. (1996) Risk factors for constant, severe trachoma among preschool children in Kongwa, Tanzania. Am J Epidemiol 143: 73–78.
88. AbdouA, MunozBE, NassirouB, KadriB, MoussaF, et al. (2010) How much is not enough? A community randomized trial of a Water and Health Education programme for Trachoma and Ocular C. trachomatis infection in Niger. Trop Med Int Health 15: 98–104.
89. BurtonMJ, HollandMJ, FaalN, AryeeEAN, AlexanderNDE, et al. (2003) Which members of a community need antibiotics to control trachoma? Conjunctival Chlamydia trachomatis infection load in Gambian villages. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 44: 4215–4222.
90. BurtonMJ, HollandMJ, MakaloP, AryeeEA, AlexanderND, et al. (2005) Re-emergence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection after mass antibiotic treatment of a trachoma-endemic Gambian community: a longitudinal study. Lancet 365: 1321–1328.
91. HassanA, NgondiJM, KingJD, ElshafieBE, GinaidGA, et al. (2011) The prevalence of blinding trachoma in northern states of Sudan. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5.
92. KhandekarR, TonTK, Do ThiP (2006) Impact of face washing and environmental improvement on reduction of active trachoma in Vietnam-a public health intervention study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 13: 43–52.
93. ResnikoffS, PeyramaureF, BagayogoCO, HuguetP (1995) Health education and antibiotic therapy in trachoma control. Revue international du trachome et de pathologie oculaire tropicale et subtropicale et de sante publique : organe de la Ligue contre le trachome avec la collaboration de l'International Organization against Trachoma ... 72: 89–110, 89-98, 101-110.
94. RubinsteinRA (2006) Controlling blinding trachoma in the Egyptian Delta: integrating clinical, epidemiological, and anthropological understandings. Anthropology & Medicine 13: 99–118.
95. SchemannJF, GuinotC, IlboudoL, MomoG, KoB, et al. (2003) Trachoma, flies and environmental factors in Burkina Faso. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97: 63–68.
96. VinkeC, LonerganS (2011) Social and environmental risk factors for trachoma: a mixed methods approach in the Kembata Zone of southern Ethiopia. Can J Dev Stud 32: 254–268.
97. AbdouA, NassirouB, KadriB, MoussaF, MunozBE, et al. (2007) Prevalence and risk factors for trachoma and ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection in Niger. Br J Ophthalmol 91: 13–17.
98. AmzaA, KadriB, NassirouB, StollerNE, YuSN, et al. (2012) Community risk factors for ocular Chlamydia infection in Niger: pre-treatment results from a cluster-randomized trachoma trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 6: e1586.
99. AyeleB, GebreT, MoncadaJ, HouseJI, StollerNE, et al. (2011) Risk factors for ocular chlamydia after three mass azithromycin distributions. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5: e1441.
100. BaileyR, DownesB, DownesR, MabeyD (1991) Trachoma and water use; a case control study in a Gambian village. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 85: 824–828.
101. Cajas-MonsonLC, MkochaH, MunozB, QuinnTC, GaydosCA, et al. (2011) Risk factors for ocular infection with Chlamydia trachomatis in children 6 months following mass treatment in Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5: e978.
102. CumberlandP, HailuG, ToddJ (2005) Active trachoma in children aged three to nine years in rural communities in Ethiopia: prevalence, indicators and risk factors. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99: 120–127.
103. EdwardsT, Harding-EschEM, HailuG, AndreasonA, MabeyDC, et al. (2008) Risk factors for active trachoma and Chlamydia trachomatis infection in rural Ethiopia after mass treatment with azithromycin. Trop Med Int Health 13: 556–565.
104. EdwardsT, SmithJ, SturrockHJ, KurLW, SabasioA, et al. (2012) Prevalence of trachoma in unity state, South Sudan: results from a large-scale population-based survey and potential implications for further surveys. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 6: e1585.
105. EjiguM, KariukiMM, IlakoDR, GelawY (2013) Rapid trachoma assessment in kersa district, southwest ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Sci 23: 1–9.
106. FayeM, KuperH, DineenB, BaileyR (2006) Rapid assessment for prioritisation of trachoma control at community level in one district of the Kaolack Region, Senegal. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100: 149–157.
107. GolovatyI, JonesL, GelayeB, TilahunM, BeleteH, et al. (2009) Access to water source, latrine facilities and other risk factors of active trachoma in Ankober, Ethiopia. PLoS One 4: e6702.
108. Harding-EschEM, EdwardsT, SillahA, Sarr-SissohoI, AryeeEA, et al. (2008) Risk factors for active trachoma in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102: 1255–1262.
109. Harding-EschEM, EdwardsT, MkochaH, MunozB, HollandMJ, et al. (2010) Trachoma prevalence and associated risk factors in the gambia and Tanzania: baseline results of a cluster randomised controlled trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e861.
110. JipNF, KingJD, DialloMO, MiriES, HamzaAT, et al. (2008) Blinding trachoma in katsina state, Nigeria: population-based prevalence survey in ten local government areas. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 15: 294–302.
111. KetemaK, TirunehM, WoldeyohannesD, MuluyeD (2012) Active trachoma and associated risk factors among children in Baso Liben District of East Gojjam, Ethiopia. BMC Public Health 12: 1105.
112. KhandekarR, MabryR, Al HadramiK, SarvananN (2005) Active trachoma, face washing (F) and environmental improvement (E) in a high-risk population in Oman. East Mediterr Health J 11: 402–409.
113. LucenaAD, CruzAAVE, AkaishiP (2010) Epidemiology of trachoma in the village of Araripe plateau - Ceara State. Arq Bras Oftalmol 73: 271–275.
114. MahandeMJ, KwekaEJ (2011) Association between water related factors and active trachoma in Hai district, northern Tanzania. Trop Med Int Health 16: 218.
115. MesfinMM, de la CameraJ, TarekeIG, AmanualG, ArayaT, et al. (2006) A community-based trachoma survey: prevalence and risk factors in the Tigray region of northern Ethiopia. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 13: 173–181.
116. MpyetC, GoyolM, OgoshiC (2010) Personal and environmental risk factors for active trachoma in children in Yobe state, north-eastern Nigeria. Trop Med Int Health 15: 168–172.
117. MpyetC, LassBD, YahayaHB, SolomonAW (2012) Prevalence of and risk factors for trachoma in kano state, Nigeria. PLoS One 7: e40421.
118. NgondiJ, MatthewsF, ReacherM, OnsarigoA, MatendeI, et al. (2007) Prevalence of risk factors and severity of active trachoma in southern Sudan: an ordinal analysis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 126–132.
119. NgondiJ, GebreT, ShargieEB, GravesPM, EjigsemahuY, et al. (2008) Risk factors for active trachoma in children and trichiasis in adults: a household survey in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102: 432–438.
120. NgondiJ, MatthewsF, ReacherM, BabaS, BrayneC, et al. (2008) Associations between active trachoma and community intervention with Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness, and Environmental improvement (A,F,E). PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2: e229.
121. NgondiJ, GebreT, ShargieEB, AdamuL, TeferiT, et al. (2010) Estimation of effects of community intervention with antibiotics, facial cleanliness, and environmental improvement (A,F,E) in five districts of Ethiopia hyperendemic for trachoma. Br J Ophthalmol 94: 278–281.
122. QuickeE, SillahA, Harding-EschEM, LastA, JoofH, et al. (2013) Follicular trachoma and trichiasis prevalence in an urban community in The Gambia, West Africa: is there a need to include urban areas in national trachoma surveillance? Trop Med Int Health In press.
123. RegassaK, TeshomeT (2004) Trachoma among adults in Damot Gale District, South Ethiopia. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 11: 9–16.
124. SchemannJF, SackoD, MalvyD, MomoG, TraoreL, et al. (2002) Risk factors for trachoma in Mali. Int J Epidemiol 31: 194–201.
125. SchemannJF, GuinotC, TraoreL, ZefackG, DembeleM, et al. (2007) Longitudinal evaluation of three azithromycin distribution strategies for treatment of trachoma in a sub-Saharan African country, Mali. Acta Trop 101: 40–53.
126. TaylorHR, WestSK, MmbagaBB, KatalaSJ, TurnerV, et al. (1989) Hygiene factors and increased risk of trachoma in central Tanzania. Arch Ophthalmol 107: 1821–1825.
127. TielschJM, WestKPJr, KatzJ, Keyvan-LarijaniE, TizazuT, et al. (1988) The epidemiology of trachoma in southern Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 38: 393–399.
Štítky
Interné lekárstvoČlánok vyšiel v časopise
PLOS Medicine
2014 Číslo 2
- Parazitičtí červi v terapii Crohnovy choroby a dalších zánětlivých autoimunitních onemocnění
- Pleiotropní účinky statinů na kardiovaskulární systém
- Statiny indukovaná myopatie: Jak na diferenciální diagnostiku?
- Zástava srdce u pacienta se střelnými ranami – kazuistika
- Statinová intolerance
Najčítanejšie v tomto čísle
- Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Risk of Cardiovascular Events and All-Cause Mortality: A Decade-Long Historical Cohort Study
- Living Systematic Reviews: An Emerging Opportunity to Narrow the Evidence-Practice Gap
- Quantitative Measurement of Melanoma Spread in Sentinel Lymph Nodes and Survival
- Physicians as Fundraisers: Medical Philanthropy and the Doctor-Patient Relationship