Relationship between Vehicle Emissions Laws and Incidence of Suicide by Motor Vehicle Exhaust Gas in Australia, 2001–06: An Ecological Analysis
Background:
Globally, suicide accounts for 5.2% of deaths among persons aged 15 to 44 years and its incidence is rising. In Australia, suicide rates peaked in 1997 and have been declining since. A substantial part of that decline stems from a plunge in suicides by one particular method: asphyxiation by motor vehicle exhaust gas (MVEG). Although MVEG remains the second most common method of suicide in Australia, its incidence decreased by nearly 70% in the decade to 2006. The extent to which this phenomenon has been driven by national laws in 1986 and 1999 that lowered permissible levels of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions is unknown. The objective of this ecological study was to test the relationship by investigating whether areas of Australia with fewer noxious vehicles per capita experienced lower rates of MVEG suicide.
Methods and Findings:
We merged data on MVEG suicides in Australia (2001–06) with data on the number and age of vehicles in the national fleet, as well as socio-demographic data from the national census. Poisson regression was used to analyse the relationship between the incidence of suicide within two levels of geographical area—postcodes and statistical subdivisions (SSDs)—and the population density of pre-1986 and pre-1999 passenger vehicles in those areas. (There was a mean population of 8,302 persons per postcode in the study dataset and 87,413 persons per SSD.) The annual incidence of MVEG suicides nationwide decreased by 57% (from 2.6 per 100,000 in 2001 to 1.1 in 2006) during the study period; the population density of pre-1986 and pre-1999 vehicles decreased by 55% (from 14.2 per 100 persons in 2001 to 6.4 in 2006) and 26% (from 44.5 per 100 persons in 2001 to 32.9 in 2006), respectively. Area-level regression analysis showed that the suicide rates were significantly and positively correlated with the presence of older vehicles. A percentage point decrease in the population density of pre-1986 vehicles was associated with a 6% decrease (rate ratio [RR] = 1.06; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05–1.08) in the incidence of MVEG suicide within postcode areas; a percentage point decrease in the population density of pre-1999 vehicles was associated with a 3% decrease (RR = 1.03; 95% CI 1.02–1.04) in the incidence of MVEG suicide.
Conclusions:
Areas of Australia with fewer vehicles predating stringent CO emission laws experience lower rates of MVEG suicide. Although those emission laws were introduced primarily for environmental reasons, countries that lack them may miss the benefits of a serendipitous suicide prevention strategy.
: Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary
Vyšlo v časopise:
Relationship between Vehicle Emissions Laws and Incidence of Suicide by Motor Vehicle Exhaust Gas in Australia, 2001–06: An Ecological Analysis. PLoS Med 7(1): e32767. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000210
Kategorie:
Research Article
prolekare.web.journal.doi_sk:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000210
Souhrn
Background:
Globally, suicide accounts for 5.2% of deaths among persons aged 15 to 44 years and its incidence is rising. In Australia, suicide rates peaked in 1997 and have been declining since. A substantial part of that decline stems from a plunge in suicides by one particular method: asphyxiation by motor vehicle exhaust gas (MVEG). Although MVEG remains the second most common method of suicide in Australia, its incidence decreased by nearly 70% in the decade to 2006. The extent to which this phenomenon has been driven by national laws in 1986 and 1999 that lowered permissible levels of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions is unknown. The objective of this ecological study was to test the relationship by investigating whether areas of Australia with fewer noxious vehicles per capita experienced lower rates of MVEG suicide.
Methods and Findings:
We merged data on MVEG suicides in Australia (2001–06) with data on the number and age of vehicles in the national fleet, as well as socio-demographic data from the national census. Poisson regression was used to analyse the relationship between the incidence of suicide within two levels of geographical area—postcodes and statistical subdivisions (SSDs)—and the population density of pre-1986 and pre-1999 passenger vehicles in those areas. (There was a mean population of 8,302 persons per postcode in the study dataset and 87,413 persons per SSD.) The annual incidence of MVEG suicides nationwide decreased by 57% (from 2.6 per 100,000 in 2001 to 1.1 in 2006) during the study period; the population density of pre-1986 and pre-1999 vehicles decreased by 55% (from 14.2 per 100 persons in 2001 to 6.4 in 2006) and 26% (from 44.5 per 100 persons in 2001 to 32.9 in 2006), respectively. Area-level regression analysis showed that the suicide rates were significantly and positively correlated with the presence of older vehicles. A percentage point decrease in the population density of pre-1986 vehicles was associated with a 6% decrease (rate ratio [RR] = 1.06; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05–1.08) in the incidence of MVEG suicide within postcode areas; a percentage point decrease in the population density of pre-1999 vehicles was associated with a 3% decrease (RR = 1.03; 95% CI 1.02–1.04) in the incidence of MVEG suicide.
Conclusions:
Areas of Australia with fewer vehicles predating stringent CO emission laws experience lower rates of MVEG suicide. Although those emission laws were introduced primarily for environmental reasons, countries that lack them may miss the benefits of a serendipitous suicide prevention strategy.
: Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary
Zdroje
1. World Health Organization 2008 The global burden of disease: 2004 update Geneva World Health Organization Available: http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/2004_report_update/en/index.html. Accessed 1 June 2009
2. Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Causes of death. Catalogue No. 3303.0 Commonwealth of Australia Canberra Australian Bureau of Statistics
3. Motor Vehicles Standards Act 1989 (Cwlth) 1984 Australian Design Rule 37/00: emission control for light vehicles Canberra Department of Transportation and Regional Services
4. Motor Vehicles Standards Act 1989 (Cwlth) 1985 Australian Design Rule 37/01: emission control for light vehicles Canberra Department of Transport and Regional Services
5. RoutleyVH
Ozanne-SmithJ
1998 The impact of catalytic converters on motor vehicle exhaust gas suicides. Med J Aust 168 65 67
6. BrennanC
RoutleyV
Ozanne-SmithJ
2006 Motor vehicle gas suicide in Victoria, Australia 1998–2002. Crisis 27 119 124
7. MottJA
WolfeMI
AlversonCJ
MacdonaldSC
BaileyCR
2002 National vehicle emissions policies and practices and declining US carbon monoxide-related mortality. JAMA 288 988 995
8. KendellRE
1998 Catalytic converters and prevention of suicides. Lancet 352 1525
9. AmosT
ApplebyL
KiernanK
2001 Changes in rates of suicide by car exhaust asphyxiation in England and Wales. Psychol Med 31 935 939
10. McClureGM
2000 Changes in suicide in England and Wales. Brit J Psych 176 64 67
11. Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine 2007 NCIS Annual Report, 2006–07. Available: http://www.vifp.monash.edu.au/ncis/NCIS_ANNUAL_REPORT-06-07.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2009
12. Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine 2007 National Coroners Information System coding manual and user guide. Version 3. August 2007 Melbourne Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine
13. National Coroners Information System. Quality review activities and quality assurance audits. Available: http://www.ncis.org.au/web_pages/quality_reviews.htm. Accessed 8 December 2009
14. DakingL
DoddsL
2007 ICD-10 mortality coding and the NCIS: a comparative study. Health Inf Man J 36 11 23
15. DriscollTR
HenleyG
HarrisonJE
2003 The National Coroners Information System as an information tool for injury surveillance. Catalogue no. INJCAT 60 Canberra Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
16. De LeoD
2006 Suicide mortality data need revision. Med J Aust 186 157 158
17. WalkerS
ChenL
MaddenR
2008 Deaths due to suicide: the effects of certification and coding practices in Australia. Aust New Zeal J Pub Health 32 126 130
18. Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008 Motor vehicle census. ABS Catalogue No. 9309.0 Commonwealth of Australia Canberra Australian Bureau of Statistics
19. Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 How Australia takes a census. ABS Catalogue No. 2903.0. Commonwealth of Australia Canberra Australian Bureau of Statistics
20. National Academy, Institute of Medicine 2002 Reducing suicide: a national imperative Washington (D.C) National Academy, Institute of Medicine
21. HawtonK
van HeeringenK
2000 The international handbook of suicide and attempted suicide West Sussex John Wiley & Sons
22. Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008 Australian Geographical Classification System. ABS Catalogue No. 1216.0. Commonwealth of Australia Canberra Australian Bureau of Statistics
23. FaizA
WeaverCS
WalshMP
1996 Air pollution from motor vehicles: standards and technologies for controlling emissions Washington (D.C.) World Bank
24. BiddleL
BrockA
BrookesST
GunnellD
2008 Suicide rates in young men in England and Wales in the 21st century: time trend study. Brit Med J 336 539 542
25. NordentoftM
PingQ
Helweg-LarsenK
2007 Restrictions in means for suicide: an effective tool in preventing suicide: the Danish experience. Suicide Life Threat Behav 36 688 697
26. ThomsenAH
GeregersenM
2006 Suicide by carbon monoxide from car exhaust-gas in Denmark 1995–1999. Forensic Sci Int 161 41 46
27. RoutleyV
2007 Motor vehicle exhaust gas suicide: review of countermeasures. Crisis 28 28 35
28. ClarkeRVG
LesterD
1989 Suicide: Closing the exits New York Springer Verlag
29. MannJJ
ApterA
BertoloteJ
BeautraisA
CurrierD
2005 Suicide prevention strategies: a systematic review. JAMA 294 2064 2074
30. KreitmanN
1976 The coal gas story. United Kingdom suicide rates, 1960–71. Brit J Prev Soc Med 30 86 93
31. GunnellD
MiddeltonN
FrankelS
2000 Method availability and the prevention of a suicide: a re-analysis of secular trends in England and Wales 1950–1975. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 25 437 443
32. LesterD
AbeK
1989 The effect of restricting access to lethal methods for suicide: A study of suicide by domestic gas in Japan. Acta Psych Scand 80 180 182
33. TurvillJL
BurroughsAK
MooreKP
2000 Change in occurrence of paracetamol overdose in UK after introduction of blister packs. Lancet 355 2048 2049
34. HawtonK
TownsendE
DeeksJ
ApplebyL
GunnellD
2001 Effects of legislation restricting pack sizes of paracetamol and salicylate on self poisoning in the United Kingdom: before and after study. Brit Med J 322 1 7
35. GunnellD
HawtonK
MurrayV
GarnierR
BismuthC
1997 Use of paracetamol for suicide and non-fatal poisoning in the UK and France: Are restrictions on availability justified? J Epid Comm Health 51 175 179
36. WakemanJ
2008 Ecologic studies revisited. Ann Rev Public Health 29 75 90
37. PirkisJ
BeautraisA
DurkeeT
2009 Suicide attempts in New Zealand and Australia.
WassermanD
WassermanC
The Oxford textbook of suicidology: a global perspective Oxford Oxford University Press
38. CONCAWE 2006 Motor vehicle emission regulations and fuel specifications - Part 1 2004/2005 update. Report No 05/06 Brussels CONCAWE
39. Asian Development Bank 2003 Reducing vehicle emissions in Asia, 2003. Available: http://www.adb.org/documents/guidelines/Vehicle_Emissions/reducing_vehicle_emissions.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2009
40. McGranahanG
MurrayF
2003 Air pollution and health in rapidly developing countries London Earthscan Publishers
41. National Research Council 1996 Meeting the challenges of megacities in the developing world Washington (D.C.) National Academy Press
Štítky
Interné lekárstvoČlánok vyšiel v časopise
PLOS Medicine
2010 Číslo 1
- Statinová intolerance
- Očkování proti virové hemoragické horečce Ebola experimentální vakcínou rVSVDG-ZEBOV-GP
- Co dělat při intoleranci statinů?
- Pleiotropní účinky statinů na kardiovaskulární systém
- DESATORO PRE PRAX: Aktuálne odporúčanie ESPEN pre nutričný manažment u pacientov s COVID-19
Najčítanejšie v tomto čísle
- The Evolution of the Epidemic of Charcoal-Burning Suicide in Taiwan: A Spatial and Temporal Analysis
- Male Circumcision at Different Ages in Rwanda: A Cost-Effectiveness Study
- Geographic Distribution of Causing Invasive Infections in Europe: A Molecular-Epidemiological Analysis
- “Working the System”—British American Tobacco's Influence on the European Union Treaty and Its Implications for Policy: An Analysis of Internal Tobacco Industry Documents