Fecal Contamination of Drinking-Water in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

English version České info

Background:
Access to safe drinking-water is a fundamental requirement for good health and is also a human right. Global access to safe drinking-water is monitored by WHO and UNICEF using as an indicator “use of an improved source,” which does not account for water quality measurements. Our objectives were to determine whether water from “improved” sources is less likely to contain fecal contamination than “unimproved” sources and to assess the extent to which contamination varies by source type and setting.

Methods and Findings:
Studies in Chinese, English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish were identified from online databases, including PubMed and Web of Science, and grey literature. Studies in low- and middle-income countries published between 1990 and August 2013 that assessed drinking-water for the presence of Escherichia coli or thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) were included provided they associated results with a particular source type. In total 319 studies were included, reporting on 96,737 water samples. The odds of contamination within a given study were considerably lower for “improved” sources than “unimproved” sources (odds ratio [OR] = 0.15 [0.10–0.21], I² = 80.3% [72.9–85.6]). However over a quarter of samples from improved sources contained fecal contamination in 38% of 191 studies. Water sources in low-income countries (OR = 2.37 [1.52–3.71]; p<0.001) and rural areas (OR = 2.37 [1.47–3.81] p<0.001) were more likely to be contaminated. Studies rarely reported stored water quality or sanitary risks and few achieved robust random selection. Safety may be overestimated due to infrequent water sampling and deterioration in quality prior to consumption.

Conclusion:
Access to an “improved source” provides a measure of sanitary protection but does not ensure water is free of fecal contamination nor is it consistent between source types or settings. International estimates therefore greatly overstate use of safe drinking-water and do not fully reflect disparities in access. An enhanced monitoring strategy would combine indicators of sanitary protection with measures of water quality.

Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary

Vyšlo v časopise: Fecal Contamination of Drinking-Water in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Med 11(5): e32767. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001644
Kategorie: Research Article
prolekare.web.journal.doi_sk: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001644

Souhrn

Zdroje

1. Committee on Economic Socal and Community Rights (2002) General comment no. 15, The right to water. UN Doc. E/C.12/2010. New York: United Nations.

2. United Nations (2010) Resolution on Human Right to Water and Sanitation. United Nations General Assembly. A/64/292. New York: United Nations.

3. United Nations (2013) UN Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability. Available: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/environ.shtml. Accessed 1 December 2013.

4. UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme: definitions and methods. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/. Accessed 1 December 2013.

5. WHO/UNICEF (2013) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water: 2012 Update WHO/UNICEF. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods. Accessed 1 December 2013.

6. GodfreyS, LabhasetwarP, WateS, PimpalkarS (2011) How safe are the global water coverage figures? Case study from Madhya Pradesh, India. Environ Monit Asses 176: 561–574.

7. Schäfer D, Werchota R, Dölle K (2007) MDG monitoring for urban water supply and sanitation: catching up with reality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).

8. BainRES, GundrySW, WrightJA, YangH, PedleyS, et al. (2012) Accounting for water quality in monitoring access to safe drinking-water as part of the Millennium Development Goals: lessons from five countries. Bull World Health Organ 90: 228–235A.

9. OndaK, LoBuglioJ, BartramJ (2012) Global access to safe water: accounting for water quality and the resulting impact on MDG progress. Int J Environ Res Public Health 9: 880–894.

10. Payen G (2011) Worldwide needs for safe drinking water are underestimated: billions of people are impacted. Paris: AquaFed.

11. White GF, Bradley DJ, White AU (1972) Drawers of water: domestic water use in East Africa. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

12. WHO (2011) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva: World Health Organization.

13. LiuL, JohnsonHL, CousensS, PerinJ, ScottS, et al. (2012) Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000. Lancet 379: 2151–2161.

14. EsreySA, FeachemRG, HughesJM (1985) Interventions for the control of diarrhoeal diseases among young children: improving water supplies and excreta disposal facilities. Bull World Health Organ 63: 757–772.

15. FewtrellL, ColfordJMJr (2005) Water, sanitation and hygiene in developing countries: interventions and diarrhoea—a review. Water Sci Technol 52: 133–142.

16. ClasenT, RobertsI, RabieT, SchmidtW, CairncrossS (2006) Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 19: CD004794.

17. WaddingtonH, SnilstveitB (2009) Effectiveness and sustainability of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions in combating diarrhoea. Journal of Development Effectiveness 1: 295–335.

18. CairncrossS, HuntC, BoissonS, BostoenK, CurtisV, et al. (2010) Water, sanitation and hygiene for the prevention of diarrhoea. Int J Epidemiol 39: i193–i205.

19. Ligon GC (2012) Waterborne disease outbreaks: a systematic review of the health effects of drinking water system failures, Chapel Hill (North Carolina): University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

20. CraunGF, BrunkardJM, YoderJS, RobertsVA, et al. (2010) Causes of Outbreaks Associated with Drinking Water in the United States from 1971 to 2006. Clin Microbiol Rev 23(3): 507–528.

21. SchmidtWP, CairncrossS (2009) Household water treatment in poor populations: is there enough evidence for scaling up now? Environ Sci Technol 43: 986–992.

22. WHO/UNICEF (2010) JMP Technical Task Force Meeting on Monitoring Drinking-water Quality. Geneva and New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Task-Force-Meeting-on-Monitoring-Drinking-water-Quality.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

23. BainRES, BartramJK, ElliottM, MatthewsRL, McMahanL, et al. (2012) A summary catalogue of microbial drinking water tests for low and medium resource settings. Int J Environ Res Public Health 9: 1609–1625.

24. LloydBJ, BartramJK (1991) Surveillance solutions to microbiological problems in water-quality control in developing-countries. Water Sci Technol 24: 61–75.

25. WHO (1997) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Geneva: World Health Organization

26. Gleeson C, Gray NF (1997) The coliform index and waterborne disease: problems of microbial drinking water assessment. London; New York: E & FN SPON. xii, 194 p. p.

27. WHO (2012) Water safety planning for small community water supplies: Step-by-step risk management guidance for drinking-water supplies in small communities. Geneva: World Health Organization.

28. Prescott SC, Winslow CEA (1904) Elements of Water Bacteriology, with special reference to sanitary water analysis (1904). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

29. Davison A, Howard G, Stevens M, Callan P, Fewtrell L, et al.. (2005) Water safety plans: Managing drinking-water quality from catchment to consumer. Geneva: World Health Organization.

30. WHO/UNICEF (2013) Proposal for consolidated drinking water, sanitation and hygiene targets, indicators and definitions. Geneva and New York: WHO/UNICEF. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/A-proposal-for-consolidated-WASH-goal-targets-definitions-and-indicators_version7_Nov22_final.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

31. MoherD, LiberatiA, TetzlaffJ, AltmanDG (2009) Group P (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med 6: e1000097.

32. UN (2013) Millennium Development Indicators: World and regional groupings. Available: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Host.aspx?Content=Data/RegionalGroupings. Accessed 1 December 2013.

33. OpryszkoMC, HuangH, SoderlundK, SchwabKJ (2009) Data gaps in evidence-based research on small water enterprises in developing countries. J Water Health 7: 609–622.

34. WrightJ, GundryS, ConroyR (2004) Household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use. Trop Med Int Health 9: 106–117.

35. WrightJA, YangH, WalkerK, PedleyS, ElliottJ, et al. (2012) The H(2)S test versus standard indicator bacteria tests for faecal contamination of water: systematic review and meta-analysis. Trop Med Int Health 17: 94–105.

36. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2012) World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision. Available: http://esa.un.org/wpp/. Accessed 1 December 2013.

37. RompreA, ServaisP, BaudartJ, de-RoubinMR, LaurentP (2002) Detection and enumeration of coliforms in drinking water: current methods and emerging approaches. J Microbiol Methods 49: 31–54.

38. WHO/UNICEF (2006) Core questions on drinking-water and sanitation for household surveys WHO/UNICEF. Geneva and New York: WHO/UNICEF. Available: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/oms_brochure_core_questionsfinal24608.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

39. World Bank (2013) Country and lending groups. Available: http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups. Accessed 1 December 2013.

40. SahaS, ChantD, WelhamJ, McGrathJ (2005) A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia. PLoS Med 2: e141.

41. McBride GB (2005) Using statistical methods for water quality management: issues, problems, and solutions. Hoboken (New Jersey): Wiley-Interscience. xxiv, 313 p. p.

42. Borenstein M (2009) Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons. xxviii, 421 p. p.

43. WartonDI, HuiFK (2011) The arcsine is asinine: the analysis of proportions in ecology. Ecology 92: 3–10.

44. SweetingM, J. SuttonA, C. LambertP (2004) What to add to nothing? Use and avoidance of continuity corrections in meta-analysis of sparse data. Statistics in Medicine 23: 1351–1375.

45. Rodríguez G. (2007) Logit Models for Binary Data. Lecture Notes on Generalized Linear Models. Available: http://data.princeton.edu/wws509/notes/c3.pdf. Accessed 30 December 2013.

46. AbdellahAM, Abdel-MagidHM, YahiaNA (2012) Assessment of Drinking Water Microbial Contamination in Al-Butana Region of Sudan. Journal of Applied Sciences (Faisalabad) 12: 856–862.

47. AberaS, ZeyinudinA, KebedeB, DeribewA, AliS, et al. (2011) Bacteriological analysis of drinking water sources. Afr J Microbiol Res 5: 2638–2641.

48. Abu AmrSS, YassinMM (2008) Microbial contamination of the drinking water distribution system and its impact on human health in Khan Yunis Governorate, Gaza Strip: seven years of monitoring (2000–2006). Public Health 122: 1275–1283.

49. Abu MaylaYS, Abu AmrSS (2010) Chemical and microbiological quality of drinking water in Gaza Strip, Palestine. Science Vision 10: 80–88.

50. AbusafaA, ArafatHA, Abu-BakerM, KhaliliKN (2012) Utilisation of drinking water from rainwater-harvesting cisterns in the Palestinian territories: assessment of contamination risk. Int J Environment and Waste Management 9: 358–371.

51. Addo KK, Mensah GI, Bekoe M, Bonsu C, Akyeh ML (2009) Bacteriological quality of sachet water produced and sold in Teshie-Nungua suburbs of Accra, Ghana. African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and Development 9.

52. AdmassuM, WubshetM, GelawB (2004) A survey of bacteriological quality of drinking water in North Gondar. Ethiop J Health Dev 18: 112–115.

53. AgaT, BekaNC, EziashiAC (2010) Spatial variation in groundwater quality of Jos metropolis and environs, north-central Nigeria. Continental J Environmental Sciences 4: 1–11.

54. AgardL, AlexanderC, GreenS, JacksonM, PatelS, et al. (2002) Microbial quality of water supply to an urban community in Trinidad. Journal of Food Protection 65: 1297–1303.

55. AhmadM, BajahlanAS (2009) Quality comparison of tap water vs. bottled water in the industrial city of Yanbu (Saudi Arabia). Environ Monit Asses 159: 1–14.

56. AhmedK, AhmedM, AhmedJ, KhanA (2012) Risk Assessment by Bacteriological Evaluation of Drinking Water of Gilgit-Baltistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 44: 427–432.

57. Ahmed MF, Shamsuddin SAJ, Mahmud SG, Rashid HU, Deere D, et al.. (2005) Risk Assessment of Arsenic Mitigation Options (RAAMO). Dhaka, Bangladesh: APSU.

58. AhmedSA, HoqueBA, MahmudA (1998) Water management practices in rural and urban homes: a case study from Bangladesh on ingestion of polluted water. Public Health 112: 317–321.

59. AhoussiKE, KoffiYB, KouassiAM, OsemwegieI, BiémiJ (2013) Influence of Anthropogenic Activities of Groundwater from Hand Dug Wells within the Precarious Settlements of Southern Abidjan, Côte d′Ivoire: Case of the Slums of Anoumabo (Marcory) and Adjouffou (Port-Bouët). Journal of Water Resource and Protection 5: 427–439.

60. AkoachereJF, OmamLA, MassallaTN (2013) Assessment of the relationship between bacteriological quality of dug-wells, hygiene behaviour and well characteristics in two cholera endemic localities in Douala, Cameroon. BMC Public Health 13: 692.

61. Al-KhatibIA, ArafatHA (2009) Chemical and microbiological quality of desalinated water, groundwater and rain-fed cisterns in the Gaza strip, Palestine. Desalination 249: 1165–1170.

62. Al-SalaymehA, Al-KhatibIA, ArafatHA (2011) Towards Sustainable Water Quality: Management of Rainwater Harvesting Cisterns in Southern Palestine. Water Resour Manag 25: 1721–1736.

63. AlbertJ, LuotoJ, LevineD (2010) End-User Preferences for and Performance of Competing POU Water Treatment Technologies among the Rural Poor of Kenya. Environ Sci Technol 44: 4426–4432.

64. Aldana JM (2010) Rapid assessment of drinking-water quality in the Republic of Nicaragua: country report of the pilot project implementation in 2004–2005. Geneva: WHO/UNICEF. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/RADWQ_Nicaragua.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

65. Aliev S, Shodmonov P, Babakhanova N, Schmoll O (2010) Rapid assessment of drinking-water quality in the Republic of Tajikistan: country report of the pilot project implementation in 2004–2005. Geneva: WHO/UNICEF. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/RADWQ_Tajikistan.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

66. AlvesNC, OdorizziAC, GoulartFC (2002) Microbiological analysis of mineral water and drinking water of reservoir supplies, Brazil. Rev Saúde Pública 36: 749–751.

67. AmoueiA, MiranzadehMB, ShahandehZ, TaheriT, AsgharniaHA, et al. (2012) A Study on the Microbial Quality of Drinking Water in Rural Areas of Mazandaran Province in North of Iran (2011). Journal of Environmental Protection 3: 605–605.

68. AmpofoJA, AndohA, TettehW, BelloM (2007) Microbiological quality and health risks of packaged water produced in southern Ghana. Journal of Applied Science and Technology 12: 88–97.

69. AnY-J, BreindenbachGP (2005) Monitoring E-coli and total coliforms in natural spring water as related to recreational mountain areas. Environ Monit Asses 102: 131–137.

70. AndradeCdS, LeiteCC, da SilvaMD, de AssisPN, GuimaraesAG (2004) Quality of water used in the beach huts of Salvador-Bahia seashore microbiological aspects. Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz 63: 215–219.

71. ArnoldM, VandersliceJA, TaylorB, BensonS, AllenS, et al. (2013) Drinking water quality and source reliability in rural Ashanti region, Ghana. J Water Health 11: 161–172.

72. AugoustinosMT, VenterSN, KfirR (1995) Assessment of water quality problems due to microbial growth in drinking water distribution systems. Environ Toxic Water 10: 295–299.

73. Austin CJ (1993) Chlorinating household water in The Gambia. 19th WEDC conference. Accra, Ghana: WEDC.

74. AwuahE, NyarkoKB, OwusuPA, Osei-BonsuK (2009) Small town water quality. Desalination 248: 453–459.

75. AyantoboOO, OluwasanyaGO, IdowuOA, EruolaAO (2012) (2012) Water Quality Evaluation of Hand-dug Wells in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Special Publication of the Nigerian Association of Hydrological Sciences 231–239.

76. AydinA (2007) The microbiological and physico-chemical quality of groundwater in West Thrace, Turkey. Pol J Environ Stud 16: 377–383.

77. BahramA, HamidB, AkramN (2012) Estimation of coliform contamination rate and impact of environmental factor on bacterial quality of tube well water supplies in Khorramdarreh County, Iran. Afr J Biotechnol 11: 7912–7915.

78. BaigSA, XuX, Navedullah, MuhammadN, KhanZU, et al. (2012) Pakistan's drinking water and environmental sanitation status in post 2010 flood scenario: humanitarian response and community needs. Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation 7: 49–54.

79. BakerKK, SowS, KotloffKL, NataroJP, FaragTH, et al. (2013) Quality of piped and stored water in households with children under five years of age enrolled in the Mali Site of the Global Enteric Multi-Center Study (GEMS). Am J Trop Med Hyg 89(2): 214–22.

80. BarbosaDA, LageMM, BadaroACL (2009) Microbiological quality of water drinking fountains of a university campus in Ipatinga, Minas Gerais. Nutrir Gerais 3: 505–517.

81. Barthiban S, Lloyd BJ (2012) Validity of the application of open dug well sanitary survey methodology in the development of a water safety plan in the Maldives islands. Brebbia CA, Zubir SS, editors. Management of natural resources, sustainable development and ecological hazards III. Ashurst, UK: Wit Press. pp. 369–380.

82. BarthibanS, LloydBJ, MaierM (2012) Sanitary hazards and microbial quality of open dug wells in the Maldives Islands. Journal of Water Resource and Protection 4: 474–474.

83. Bartram JK (1996) Optimizing the monitoring and assessment of rural water supplies. Guildford, UK: University of Surrey.

84. BegumJ, AhmedK, BoraKN (2004) Isolation and identification of coliform bacteria from different sources of drinking water. Nature, Environment and Pollution Technology 3: 51–53.

85. BesserRE (1995) Prevención de la transmisión del cólera: evaluación rápida de la calidad del agua municipal en Trujillo, Perú. Boletin - Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana 119: 189–194.

86. BharathJ, MosodeenM, MotilalS, SandyS, SharmaS, et al. (2003) Microbial quality of domestic and imported brands of bottled water in Trinidad. Int J Food Microbiol 81: 53–62.

87. BordaloAA, Savva-BordaloJ (2007) The quest for safe drinking water: an example from Guinea-Bissau (West Africa). Water Research 41: 2978–2986.

88. BrachoMG, MoronV, LuzardoM, MontielM, BoteroL (2008) Hepatitis A virus, adenovirus 40–41 and bacteriophages in water for human consumption. Ciencia (Maracaibo) 16: 271–278.

89. Broshears RE, Amin Akbari M, Chornack MP, Mueller DK, Ruddy BC (2005) Inventory of ground-water resources in the Kabul Basin, Afghanistan. Reston (Virginia): U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).

90. Camara O (2011) Pollution microbiologique des eaux souterraines dans le quartier Tanghin de Ouagadougou: etats des lieux et perspectives. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso: Foundation 2iE.

91. Cardoso ALSP, Tessari ENC, de Castro AGM, Kanashiro AMI (2001) Avaliação da qualidade microbiológica de águas minerais comercializadas em supermercados da cidade de Alfenas. Higiene Alimentar 15.

92. CarrascoL, MenaKD, MotaLC, OrtizM, BehraveshCB, et al. (2008) Occurrence of faecal contamination in households along the US-Mexico border. Lett Appl Microbiol 46: 682–687.

93. CaylakE, TokarM (2012) Metallic and microbial contaminants in drinking water of Cankiri, Turkey. E-Journal of Chemistry 9: 608–614.

94. ChaidezC, SotoM, MartinezC, KeswickB (2008) Drinking water microbiological survey of the Northwestern State of Sinaloa, Mexico. J Water Health 6: 125–130.

95. ChemulitiJK, GathuraPB, KyuleMM, NjeruhFM (2002) Bacteriological qualities of indoor and out-door drinking water in Kibera sub-location of Nairobi, Kenya. East Afr Med J 79: 271–273.

96. ChenD, LanL (2011) The analysis of drinking-water sanitation in cities and towns of Nanping in the year 2008-2010. Chinese Journal of Health Laboratory Technology 21: 2519–2521.

97. Chung C (2011) The challenges of a water system management handover in Eastern Ethiopia - from the United Nations Refugee Agency to a local community. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

98. ClasenT, SaeedTF, BoissonS, EdmondsonP, ShipinO (2007) Household water treatment using sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) tablets: a randomized, controlled trial to assess microbiological effectiveness in Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 187–192.

99. CoelhoDA, Faria e SilvaPM, VeigaSMOM, FioriniJE (2007) Avaliação da qualidade microbiológica de águas minerais comercializadas em supermercados da cidade de Alfenas. Higiene Alimentar 21: 88–92.

100. Coloru B, Mgaya S, Taubert R (2012) Appropriate technologies for rural water supply: a comparative study between “rope pumps” and conventional piston-pumps on water quality and other sustainability parameters. Milan: ACRA/SHIPO.

101. CopelandCC, BeersBB, ThompsonMR, FitzgeraldRP, BarrettLJ, et al. (2009) Faecal contamination of drinking water in a Brazilian shanty town: importance of household storage and new human faecal marker testing. J Water Health 7: 324–331.

102. Costello DH (2013) An Evaluation of a Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Program for rural communities in Northern Afghanistan. Corvallis: Oregon State University.

103. CroninAA, BreslinN, GibsonJ, PedleyS (2006) Monitoring source and domestic water quality in parallel with sanitary risk identification in northern Mozambique to prioritise protection interventions. J Water Health 4: 333–345.

104. CuiB, DengH, JingY, YueF, YuQ, et al. (2012) Investigation on the quality of groundwater in Rural Fengtai District. Journal of Environmental Hygiene 2: 280–284.

105. da SilvaMEZ, SantanaRG, GuilhermettiM, FilhoIC, EndoEH, et al. (2008) Comparison of the bacteriological quality of tap water and bottled mineral water. Int J Hyg Environ Health 211: 504–509.

106. DadaAC (2009) Sachet water phenomenon in Nigeria: Assessment of the potential health impacts. Afr J Microbiol Res 3: 15–21.

107. DaoudAK, SwailehKM, HusseinRM, MataniM (2011) Quality assessment of roof-harvested rainwater in the West Bank, Palestinian Authority. J Water Health 9: 525–533.

108. de SaLLC, de JesusIM, SantosECO, ValeER, LoureiroECB, et al. (2005) Microbiological quality of drinking water in two areas following sanitation interventions – Belém, Pará State, Brazil. Epidemiol Serv Saude 14: 171–180.

109. de SiqueiraLP, ShinoharaNK, de LimaRM, de Paiva JdoE, de Lima FilhoJL, et al. (2010) Microbiological evaluation of drinking water used in feeding units. Cien Saude Colet 15: 63–66.

110. DegbeyC, MakoutodeM, FayomiB, BrouwerCD (2010) La qualité de l ′ eau de boisson en milieu professionnel à Godomey en 2009 au Bénin Afrique de l′Ouest. J Int Santé Trav 1: 15–22.

111. DegbeyC, MakoutodeM, OuendoEM, FayomiB, De BrouwerC (2008) The quality of well water in the municipality of Abomey-Calavi in Benin. Environnement Risques & Sante 7: 279–283.

112. DesmarchelierP, LewA, CaiqueW, KnightS, ToodayanW, et al. (1992) An evaluation of the hydrogen sulphide water screening test and coliform counts for water quality assessment in rural Malaysia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 86: 448–450.

113. Devoto F, Duflo E, Dupas P, Pariente W, Pons V (2011) Happiness on tap: piped water adoption in Urban Morocco. Cambridge (Massachusetts): National Bureau of Economic Research.

114. DongolB, MerzJ, SchaffnerM, NakarmiG, ShahP, et al. (2005) Shallow groundwater in a middle mountain catchment of Nepal: quantity and quality issues. Environ Geol 49: 219–229.

115. dos ReisJAP (1998) Perfil Higienico sanitario das aguas de consumo do distrito federal. Revista de Saude do Distrito 9: 32–35.

116. EgwariL, AboabaOO (2002) Environmental impact on the bacteriological quality of domestic water supplies in Lagos, Nigeria. Revista de Saude Publica 36: 513–520.

117. EhlersMM, van ZylWB, PavlovDN, MullerEE (2004) Random survey of the microbial quality of bottled water in South Africa. Water SA 30: 203–210.

118. EjechiBO, OlobaniyiSB, OgbanFE, UgbeFC (2007) Physical and sanitary quality of hand-dug well water from oil-producing area of Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess 128: 495–501.

119. EjechiEO, EjechiBO (2008) Safe drinking water and satisfaction with environmental quality of life in some oil and gas industry impacted cities of Nigeria. Soc Indic Res 85: 211–222.

120. El-SalamMM, Al-GhitanyEM, KassemMM (2008) Quality of bottled water brands in Egypt Part II: biological water examination. J Egypt Public Health Assoc 83: 468–486.

121. EldinMNA, MadanyIM, Al-TayaranA, Al-JubairAH, GomaaA (1993) Quality of water from some wells in Saudi Arabia. Water Air Soil Poll 66: 135–143.

122. Empereur-BissonnetP, SalzmanV, MonjourL (1992) Evaluation of a new type of transport and storage recipient for improving the quality of drinking-water in rural african areas. Bulletin De La Societe De Pathologie Exotique 85: 390–394.

123. EscamillaV, KnappettPSK, YunusM, StreatfieldPK, EmchM (2013) Influence of latrine proximity and type on tubewell water quality and diarrheal disease in Bangladesh. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 103: 299–308.

124. EshcolJ, MahapatraP, KeshapaguS (2009) Is fecal contamination of drinking water after collection associated with household water handling and hygiene practices? A study of urban slum households in Hyderabad, India. J Water Health 7: 145–154.

125. EsterhuizenL, FosseyA, LuesJFR (2012) Dairy farm borehole water quality in the greater Mangaung region of the Free State Province, South Africa. Water SA 38: 803–806.

126. Falcone-DiasMF, EmerickGL, Farache-FilhoA (2012) Mineral water: a microbiological approach. Wa Sci Technol 12: 556–562.

127. Farache FilhoA, DiasMFF (2008) Qualidade microbiológica de águas minerais em galões de 20 litros. Alim Nutr 19: 243–248.

128. Farache FilhoA, DiasMFF, TaromaruRH, CerqueiraCS, DuqueJD (2008) Qualidade microbiológica de águas minerais não carbonatadas em embalagens de 1,5 litros, comercializadas em araraquara-sp. Alim Nutr 19: 421–425.

129. FergusonAS, LaytonAC, MaillouxBJ, CulliganPJ, WilliamsDE, et al. (2012) Comparison of fecal indicators with pathogenic bacteria and rotavirus in groundwater. Sci Total Environ 431: 314–322.

130. FerrettiE, BonadonnaL, LucentiniL, Della LiberaS, SemproniM, et al. (2010) A case study of sanitary survey on community drinking water supplies after a severe (post-Tsunami) flooding event. Annali Dell Istituto Superiore Di Sanita 46: 236–241.

131. FioreMM, MinningsK, FioreLD (2010) Assessment of biosand filter performance in rural communities in southern coastal Nicaragua: an evaluation of 199 households. Rural Remote Health 10: 1483.

132. Flores-AbuxapquiJJ, Suarez-HoilGJ, Puc-FrancoMA, Heredia-NavarreteMR, Vivas-RoselMD, et al. (1995) Bacteriological quality of drinking water in the City of Merida, Mexico. Salud Publica Mex 37: 236–239.

133. Frischknecht DS (2006) Análise de NMP de coliformes em águas minerais comercializadas no Distrito Federal. Brasília: Universidade de Brasília.

134. GarodeAM, NanotyVD, BodhankarMG (1998) Bacteriological status of drinking water in and around Chikhli town of Buldana district, Maharashtra. Pollution Research 17: 293–294.

135. GaytanM, CastroT, BonillaP, LugoA, VilaclaraG (1997) Preliminary study of selected drinking water samples in Mexico City. Revista Internacional de Contaminacion Ambiental 13: 73–78.

136. GelinasY, RandallH, RobidouxL, SchmitJ-P (1996) Well water survey in two districts of Conakry (Republic of Guinea), and comparison with the piped city water. Water Research 30: 2017–2026.

137. Genthe B, Seager J, Vundule C, Strauss N, Maforah F (1996) The effect of water supply, handling and usage on water quality in relation to health indicies in developing communities Stellenbosch, South Africa: Water Research Council.

138. GhengheshKS, BelhajK, AlgauiA, AlturkiE, EltomiA (2004) Blessed water: bacteriological quality of drinking water obtained from mosques in Tripoli-Libya. Int J Antimicrob Ag 24: S150.

139. GonulSA, KarapinarM (1991) The microbiological quality of drinking water supplies of Izmir City: the incidence of Yersinia enterocolitica. Int J Food Microbiol 13: 69–73.

140. GorterAC, AlbertsJH, GagoJF, SandifordP (1995) A randomized trial of the impact of rope-pumps on water quality. J Trop Med Hyg 98: 247–255.

141. Grimason AM, Beattie TK, Morse TD, Masangwi SJ, Jabu GC, et al.. (2013) Classication and quality of groundwater supplies in the Lower Shire Valley, Malawi – part 2: classification of borehole water supplies in Chikhwawa, Malawi. Water SA 39.

142. GuedesZBL, OriáHF, BrittoNPB, NetoJWS, Silveira;JWd, et al. (2004) Controle sanitario da agua consumida nas unidades de saude do municipio de Fortaleza, CE. Higiene Alimentar 18: 28–31.

143. GuilleminF, HenryP, UwechueN, MonjourL (1991) Faecal contamination of rural water supply in the Sahelian area. Water Research 25: 923–927.

144. Guimaraes APRC, Serafini AB (2005) Avaliação da qualidade microbiológica de amostras de água mineral natural, envasada, comercializadas em Goiânia, Goiás. Goiânia, Brazil: UFG.

145. GundrySW, WrightJA, ConroyRM, Du PreezM, GentheB, et al. (2009) Child dysentery in the Limpopo Valley: a cohort study of water, sanitation and hygiene risk factors. J Water Health 7: 259–266.

146. GuptaSK, SheikhMA, IslamMS, RahmanKS, JahanN, et al. (2008) Usefulness of the hydrogen sulfide test for assessment of water quality in Bangladesh. J Appl Microbiol 104: 388–395.

147. GuptaSK, SuantioA, GrayA, WidyastutiE, JainN, et al. (2007) Factors associated with E. coli contamination of household drinking water among tsunami and earthquake survivors, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 1158–1162.

148. GwimbiP (2011) The microbial quality of drinking water in Manonyane community: Maseru District (Lesotho). African Health Sciences 11: 474–480.

149. Handzel T (1998) The effect of improved drinking water quality on the risk of diarrheal disease in an urban slum of Dhaka, Bangladesh: A home chlorination intervention trial. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

150. HarunaR, EjobiF, KabagambeEK (2005) The quality of water from protected springs in Katwe and Kisenyi parishes, Kampala city, Uganda. Afr Health Sci 5: 14–20.

151. HashmiI, FarooqS, QaiserS (2009) Chlorination and water quality monitoring within a public drinking water supply in Rawalpindi Cantt (Westridge and Tench) area, Pakistan. Environ Monit Asses 158: 393–403.

152. HashmiI, FarooqS, QaiserS (2009) Incidence of fecal contamination within a public drinking water supply in Ratta Amral, Rawalpindi. Desalination and Water Treatment 11: 124–131.

153. HenryFJ, RahimZ (1990) Transmission of diarrhoea in two crowded areas with different sanitary facilities in Dhaka, Bangladesh. J Trop Med Hyg 93: 121–126.

154. HerathAT, AbayasekaraCL, ChandrajithR, AdikaramNKB (2012) Temporal variation of microbiological and chemical quality of noncarbonated bottled drinking water sold in Sri Lanka. J Food Sci 77: M160–M164.

155. Hira-SmithMM, YuanY, SavarimuthuX, LiawJ, HiraA, et al. (2007) Arsenic concentrations and bacterial contamination in a pilot shallow dugwell program in West Bengal, India. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 42: 89–95.

156. Holm RH (2012) Survey of water quality in northern Malawi, Africa, and communication of human health risk. Pullman: Washington State University.

157. Holt S (2009) A survey of water storage practices and beliefs in households in Bonao, Dominican Republic in 2005. Atlanta: Georgia State University.

158. HoqueBA, SackRB, SiddiqiM, JahangirAM, HazeraN, et al. (1993) Environmental health and the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone. Disasters 17: 143–152.

159. HoqueBA, YamauraS, SakaiA, KhanamS, KarimM, et al. (2006) Arsenic mitigation for water supply in bangladesh: appropriate technological and policy perspectives. Water Qual Res J Can 41: 226–234.

160. HorakHM, ChynowethJS, MyersWP, DavisJ, FendorfS, et al. (2010) Microbial and metal water quality in rain catchments compared with traditional drinking water sources in the East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea. J Water Health 8: 126–138.

161. Howard G, Luyima P (1999) Urban and peri-urban water supply surveillance programme report on water supply surveillance in ten selected urban areas of Uganda. Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University.

162. HubbardB, GeltingR, BaffigoV, SariskyJ (2005) Community environmental health assessment strengthens environmental public health services in the Peruvian Amazon. Int J Hyg Envir Heal 208: 101–107.

163. HussainJ, HussainI, OjhaKG, SharmaKC (2001) Bacteriological pollution of ground water in textile city, Bhilwara, Rajasthan (India). Asian J Chem 13: 1123–1126.

164. Ince M, Bashire D, Oni OOO, Awe EO, Ogbechie V, et al.. (2010) Rapid assessment of drinking-water quality in the Federal Republic of Nigeria: country report of the pilot project implementation in 2004–2005. Geneva: WHO/UNICEF. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/RADWQ_Nigeria.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

165. Isaac-MarquezAP, Lezama-DavilaCM, Ku-PechPP, Tamay-SegoviaP (1994) Sanitary quality of water supply for human consumption in Campeche. Salud Publica Mex 36: 655–661.

166. IslamMA, SakakibaraH, KarimMR, SekineM, MahmudZH (2011) Bacteriological assessment of drinking water supply options in coastal areas of Bangladesh. J Water Health 9: 415–428.

167. ItamaE, OlasehaIO, SridharMKC (2006) Springs as supplementary potable water supplies for inner city populations: a study from Ibadan, Nigeria. Urban Water J 3: 215–223.

168. JagalsP, BarnardTG, MokoenaMM, AshboltN, RoserDJ (2013) Pathogenic Escherichia coli in rural household container waters. Water Sci Technol 67: 1230–1237.

169. JagalsP, BokakoTC, GrabowWOK (1999) Changing consumer water-use patterns and their effect on microbiological water quality as a result of an engineering intervention. Water SA 25: 297–297.

170. JagalsP, GrabowWOK, WilliamsE (1997) The effects of supplied water quality on human health in an urban development with limited basic subsistence facilities. Water SA 23: 373–378.

171. JayatillekeSK, GunawardanaSS (2009) Microbiological quality of well water in Kalutara District. Ceylon Med J 54: 44–45.

172. Jiban SinghM, SomashekarRK, PrakashKL, ShivannaK (2009) Bacteriological assessment of groundwater in Arkavathi and Vrishabhavathi basins, Bangalore, Karnataka. Journal of Ecology and The Natural Environment 1: 156–159.

173. JimmyDH, SundufuAJ, MalanoskiAP, JacobsenKH, AnsumanaR, et al. (2013) Water quality associated public health risk in Bo, Sierra Leone. Environ Monit Assess 185: 241–251.

174. JoyaSA, MostofaG, YousufJ, IslamA, ElahiA, et al. (2006) One solution to the arsenic problem: a return to surface (improved dug) wells. J Health Popul Nutr 24: 363–375.

175. JunaiduAU, AdamuRYA, IbrahimMTO (2001) Bacteriological assessment of pipe borne water in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. Tropical Veterinarian 19: 160–162.

176. JungJH, YooCH, KooES, KimHM, NaY, et al. (2011) Occurrence of norovirus and other enteric viruses in untreated groundwaters of Korea. J Water Health 9: 544–555.

177. KanyerereT, LevyJ, XuY, SakaJ (2012) Assessment of microbial contamination of groundwater in upper Limphasa River catchment, located in a rural area of northern Malawi. Water SA (Pretoria) 38: 581–595.

178. KarimMR (2010) Microbial contamination and associated health burden of rainwater harvesting in Bangladesh. Water Sci Technol 61: 2129–2135.

179. KarnchanawongS, KoottatepS, IkeguchiT (1993) Monitoring and evaluation of shallow well water quality near a waste disposal site. Environ Int 19: 579–587.

180. KassengaGR (2007) The health-related microbiological quality of bottled drinking water solid in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J Water Health 5: 179–185.

181. Kerala State Pollution Control Board (1991) The bacterial quality of water in selected wells in Kerala: an investigation. Trivandrum SEU-Kerala.

182. KhadseGK, KalitaM, PimpalkarSN, LabhsetwarPK (2011) Drinking water quality monitoring and surveillance for safe water supply in Gangtok, India. Environ Monit Asses 178: 401–414.

183. KhadseGK, KalitaMD, LabhsetwarPK (2012) Change in drinking water quality from source to point-of-use and storage: a case study from Guwahati, India. Environ Monit Asses 184: 5343–5361.

184. KhadseGK, KalitaMD, PimpalkarSN, LabhasetwarPK (2011) Surveillance of drinking water quality for safe water supply-a case study from Shillong, India. Water Resour Manag 25: 3321–3342.

185. KhanSU, BangashFK (2001) Drinking water quality forecast of Peshawar valley on the basis of sample data. J Chem Soc Pakistan 23: 243–252.

186. Khush R, London A, Arnold J, Ramaswamy K (2009) Evaluating the sustainability and impacts of water, sanitation & hygiene interventions. San Francisco: Aquaya.

187. Kilanko-Oluwasanya GO (2009) Better safe than sorry: towards appropriate water safety plans for urban self supply systems. Cranfield, UK: Cranfield University.

188. Kimani-MurageEW, NginduAM (2007) Quality of water the slum dwellers use: the case of a Kenyan slum. J Urban Health 84: 829–838.

189. KiptumCK, NdambukiJM (2012) Well water contamination by pit latrines: a case study of Langas. International Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering 4: 35–43.

190. KlasenS, LechtenfeldT, MeierK, RieckmannJ (2012) Benefits trickling away: the health impact of extending access to piped water and sanitation in urban Yemen. Journal of Development Effectiveness 4: 537–565.

191. KnappettPSK, McKayLD, LaytonA, WilliamsDE, AlamMJ, et al. (2012) Unsealed tubewells lead to increased fecal contamination of drinking water. J Water Health 10: 565–578.

192. KnightSM, ToodayanW, CaiqueWC, KyiW, BarnesA, et al. (1992) Risk factors for the transmission of diarrhoea in children: a case-control study in rural Malaysia. Int J Epidemiol 21: 812–818.

193. KorfaliSI, JurdiM (2009) Provision of safe domestic water for the promotion and protection of public health: a case study of the city of Beirut, Lebanon. Environ Geochem Hlth 31: 283–295.

194. KravitzJD, NyaphisiM, MandelR, PetersenE (1999) Quantitative bacterial examination of domestic water supplies in the Lesotho Highlands: Water quality, sanitation, and village health. Bull World Health Organ 77: 829–836.

195. KremerM, LeinoJ, MiguelE, ZwaneAP (2011) Spring cleaning: rural water impacts, valuation, and property rights institutions. Q J Econ 126: 145–205.

196. Kremer M, Null C, Zwane AP (2008) Trickle down: diffusion of chlorine for drinking water treatment in Kenya. Available: http://www.stanford.edu/group/SITE/archive/SITE_2008/segment_1/papers/de_giorgi_SITE_Trickle_Down.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

197. KromoredjoP, FujiokaRS (1991) Evaluating three simple methods to assess the microbial quality of drinking water in indonesia. Environ Toxic Water 6: 259–270.

198. KumpelE, NelsonKL (2013) Comparing microbial water quality in an intermittent and continuous piped water supply. Water Res 47: 5176–5188.

199. LaceyS, LopezR, FrangosC, KhodadoustA (2011) Water quality degradation after water storage at household level in a piped water system in rural Guatemala. International Journal for Service Learning in Engineering 6: 118–129.

200. LalM, KaurH (2006) A microbiological study of bottled mineral water marketed in Ludhiana. Indian J Public Health 50: 31–32.

201. Lantagne D, Clasen T (2011) Assessing the Implementation of Selected Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage (HWTS) Methods in Emergency Settings. London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

202. LeberJ, RahmanMM, AhmedKM, MaillouxB, van GeenA (2011) Contrasting influence of geology on E. coli and arsenic in aquifers of Bangladesh. Ground Water 49: 111–123.

203. LeiterM, LevyJ, MutitiS, BoardmanM, WojnarA, et al. (2013) Drinking water quality in the Mount Kasigau region of Kenya: a source to point-of-use assessment. Environmental Earth Sciences 68: 1–12.

204. LevyK, NelsonKL, HubbardA, EisenbergJNS (2008) Following the water: a controlled study of drinking water storage in northern coastal Ecuador. Environ Health Persp 116: 1533–1540.

205. LinM-Y, ChenX-L, YouT-Z (2009) Hygienic quality of bottled drinking water in Longyan from 2006 to 2008. Chinese Journal of Public Health Engineering/Zhongguo Weisheng Gongcheng Xue 8: 168–169.

206. Lira I, Matamoros A, Jacob F, Baltodano F, Harvey R (2008) Measurement of the quality of potable water by detection of H2S-producing bacteria; comparison with detection of fecal coliforms by the Millipore method in rural Nicaragua. Matagalpa/Jinotega, Nicaragua: ENACAL/DAR. Available: http://tascanica.org/images/Pathoscreenreport.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

207. LongWF, YangJJ, XuQJ (2012) Microbial contamination of household drinking water in five Haikou residential groups. Huanjing yu Zhiye Yixue 29: 566–568.

208. LubyS, IslamMS, JohnstonR (2006) Chlorine spot treatment of flooded tube wells, an efficacy trial. J Appl Microbiol 100: 1154–1158.

209. LubySP, GuptaSK, SheikhMA, JohnstonRB, RamPK, et al. (2008) Tubewell water quality and predictors of contamination in three flood-prone areas in Bangladesh. J Appl Microbiol 105: 1002–1008.

210. Lukacs H (2002) From design to implementation: innovative slow sand filtration for use in developing countries. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

211. MachdarE, van der SteenNP, Raschid-SallyL, LensPN (2013) Application of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to analyze the public health risk from poor drinking water quality in a low income area in Accra, Ghana. Sci Total Environ 449: 134–142.

212. MacyJT, DunneEF, Angoran-BenieYH, Kamelan-TanoY, KouadioL, et al. (2005) Comparison of two methods for evaluating the quality of stored drinking water in Abidjan, Cote d′lvoire, and review of other comparisons in the literature. J Water Health 3: 221–228.

213. MaganM, BileKM, KaziBM, GardeziZ (2010) Safe water supply in emergencies and the need for an exit strategy to sustain health gains: lessons learned from the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan. East Mediterr Health J 16 Suppl: S91–97

214. Magrath J (2006) Towards sustainable water-supply solutions in Rural Sierra Leone: a pragmatic approach, using comparisons with Mozambique. Oxford: Oxfam/WaterAid.

215. MahU, HaqT, PerveenF, SultanaL (2007) Bacteriological analysis of groundwater of Karachi. Pakistan J Sci Ind R 50: 273–277.

216. MahasnehIA (1992) Isolation and characterization of faecal indicator bacteria from urban and rural natural drinking water sources. Biomedical Letters 47: 347–354.

217. MahfouzAA, Abdel-MoneimM, al-ErianRA, al-AmariOM (1995) Impact of chlorination of water in domestic storage tanks on childhood diarrhoea: a community trial in the rural areas of Saudi Arabia. J Trop Med Hyg 98: 126–130.

218. MaigaH, MaigaB, SuttonS (2006) Self-supply in Mali. Waterlines 25: 13–14.

219. Mamo E, Mekonta L, Butterworth J, Sutton S (2011) New insights on the oldest approach: family wells in Ethiopia. 6th Rural Water Supply Network Forum 2011. Uganda. Kampala, Uganda: RWSN.

220. ManeVR, ChandorkarAA, KumarR (2005) Prevalence of pollution in surface and ground water sources in the rural areas of Satara Region, Maharashtra, India. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution 2: 81–87.

221. MassoudMA, Al-AbadyA, JurdiM, NuwayhidI (2010) The challenges of sustainable access to safe drinking water in rural areas of developing countries: case of Zawtar El-Charkieh, Southern Lebanon. J Environ Health 72: 24–30.

222. MatsinheNP, JuizoD, RietveldLC, PerssonKM (2008) Water services with independent providers in peri-urban Maputo: challenges and opportunities for long-term development. Water SA 34: 411–420.

223. MazengiaE, ChidavaenziMT, BradleyM, JereM, NhandaraC, et al. (2002) Effective and culturally acceptable water storage in Zimbabwe: maintaining the quality of water abstracted from upgraded family wells. J Environ Health 64: 15–18.

224. MertensTE, FernandoMA, MarshallTFDC, KirkwoodBR, CairncrossS, et al. (1990) Determinants of water quality availability and use in Kurunegala Sri Lanka. Trop Med Parasitol 41: 89–97.

225. MetwaliRM (2003) Water quality of some wells in Taiz City (Yemen Republic) and its surroundings. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 48: 90–94.

226. MichelinaAF, BronharoaTM, DarebF, PonsanocEHG (2006) Qualidade microbiológica de águas de sistemas de abastecimento público da região de Araçatuba, SP. Higiene Alimentar 20: 90–95.

227. MirandaM, AramburuA, JuncoJ, CamposM (2010) State of the quality of drinking water in households in children under five years in Peru, 2007–2010. Rev Peru Med Exp Salud Publica 27: 506–511.

228. MiranzadehMB, HeidariM, MesdaghiniaAR, YounesianM (2011) Survey of microbial quality of drinking water in rural areas of Kashan-Iran in second half of 2008. Pak J Biol Sci 14: 59–63.

229. MoazeniM, AtefiM, EbrahimiA, RazmjooP, Vahid DastjerdiM (2013) Evaluation of chemical and microbiological quality in 21 brands of Iranian bottled drinking waters in 2012: a comparison study on label and real contents. Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2013: 4.

230. MoeCL, SobseyMD, SamsaGP, MesoloV (1991) Bacterial indicators of risk of diarrhoeal disease from drinking-water in the Philippines. Bull World Health Organ 69: 305–317.

231. MombaMNB, ObiCL, ThompsonP (2009) Survey of disinfection efficiency of small drinking water treatment plants: challenges facing small water treatment plants in South Africa. Water Sa 35: 485–493.

232. Mora-BuenoD, Sanchez-PenaLC, del RazoLM, Gonzalez-AriasCA, Medina-DiazIM, et al. (2012) Presencia de arsénico y coliformes en agua potable del municipio de Tecuala, Nayarit, México. Rev Int Contam Ambie 28: 127–135.

233. Morgan P (1990) Rural water supplies and sanitation. London: Macmillan. 358 p.

234. MoshtaghiH, BoniadianM (2007) Microbial quality of drinking water in Shahrekord (Iran). Research Journal of Microbiology 2: 299–302.

235. MosleyLM, SharpDS, SinghS (2004) Effects of a tropical cyclone on the drinking-water quality of a remote Pacific Island. Disasters 28: 405–417.

236. MoyoS, WrightJ, NdambaJ, GundryS (2004) Realising the maximum health benefits from water quality improvements in the home: a case from Zaka district, Zimbabwe. Phys Chem Earth 29: 1295–1299.

237. Mpenyana-MonyatsiL, OnyangoMS, MombaMNB (2012) Groundwater quality in a South African rural community: a possible threat to public health. Pol J Environ Stud 21: 1349–1358.

238. Muzuga JM, Tole MP, Ucakuwun EK (1998) The impact of geology and pit latrines on ground water quality in Kwale District. Dunes, groundwater, mangroves and birdlife in costal Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya: Acts Press.

239. MzugaJM, ToleMP, UcakuwunEK (2001) Contamination of groundwater resources by pit latrines in Kwale District, Kenya. Discov Innovat 13: 203–212.

240. NascimentoAR, AzevedoTKL, FilhoNEM, RojasMOAI (2000) Qualidade microbiológica das águas minerais consumidas na cidade de Säo Luís - MA. Higiene Alimentar 14: 69–72.

241. NEERI (2005) Study on surveillance of drinking water quality in selected cities/towns in India. Volume I: surveillance volume II: city appraisal. Nehru Marg, Nagpur: NEERI.

242. NikaeenM, PejhanA, JalaliM (2009) Rapid monitoring of indicator coliforms in drinking water by an enzymatic assay. Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering 6: 7–10.

243. NogueiraG, NakamuraCV, TognimMCB, Abreu FilhoBA, Dias FilhoBP (2003) Microbiological quality of drinking water of urban and rural communities, Brazil. Revista de Saude Publica 37: 232–236.

244. NortonDM, RahmanM, ShaneAL, HossainZ, KulickRM, et al. (2009) Flocculant-disinfectant point-of-use water treatment for reducing arsenic exposure in rural Bangladesh. Int J Environ Heal R 19: 17–29.

245. NunesSM, FuziharaTO (2011) Availacao microbiologica das aguas envadas e commercializadas na regiao do ABC, SP. Higiene Alimentar 25: 195–199.

246. NwosuJN, OguekeCC (2004) Evaluation of sachet water samples in Owerri metropolis. Nigerian Food Journal 22: 164–170.

247. NyanchagaEN (1994) Rehabilitation of hand-dug wells and springs. Aqua (Oxford) 43: 233–237.

248. Obiri-DansoK, Okore-HansonA, JonesK (2003) The microbiological quality of drinking water sold on the streets in Kumasi, Ghana. Lett Appl Microbiol 37: 334–339.

249. OganMT (1992) Microbiological quality of bottled water sold in retail outlets in Nigeria. J Appl Bacteriol 73: 175–181.

250. OkagbueRN, DlaminiNR, SiwelaM, MpofuF (2002) Microbiological quality of water processed and bottled in Zimbabwe. Afr J Health Sci 9: 99–103.

251. Okioga T (2007) Water quality and business aspects of sachet-vended water in Tamale, Ghana [Master of Engineering dissertation]. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

252. OkuraMH, SiqueiraKB (2005) Enumeracao de coliformes totais e coliformes termotolerantes em agua de abastecimento e de minas. Higiene Alimentar 19: 86–91.

253. OlaoyeOA, OniludeAA (2009) Assessment of microbiological quality of sachet-packaged drinking water in Western Nigeria and its public health significance. Public Health 123: 729–734.

254. OloruntobaEO, SridharMK (2007) Bacteriological quality of drinking water from source to household in Ibadan, Nigeria. Afr J Med Med Sci 36: 169–175.

255. OmarKB, PotgieterN, BarnardTG (2010) Development of a rapid screening method for the detection of pathogenic Escherichia coli using a combination of Colilert Quanti-Trays/2000 and PCR. Wa Sci Technol 10: 7–13.

256. OmerEOM, SallamT (2012) Bacteriogical investigation of drinking water in Shendi Locality, River Nile State, Sudan. Open Access Scientific Reports 1: 329.

257. OnifadeAK, MLR (2008) Microbiological analysis of sachet water vended in Ondo State, Nigeria. Environmental Research Journal 2: 107–110.

258. OoKN, HanAM, HlaingT, AyeT (1991) Bacteriologic studies of food and water consumed by children in Myanmar: 1. The nature of contamination. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res 9: 87–90.

259. OpisaS, OdiereMR, JuraWG, KaranjaDM, MwinziPN (2012) Faecal contamination of public water sources in informal settlements of Kisumu City, western Kenya. Water Sci Technol 66: 2674–2681.

260. OpryszkoMC, GuoY, MacdonaldL, MacdonaldL, KiihlS, et al. (2013) Impact of water-vending kiosks and hygiene education on household drinking water quality in rural Ghana. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88: 651–660.

261. OrdiniohaB (2011) A survey of the community water supply of some rural riverine communities in the Niger Delta region, Nigeria: Health implications and literature search for suitable interventions. Niger Med J 52: 13–18.

262. OswaldWE, LescanoAG, BernC, CalderonMM, CabreraL, et al. (2007) Fecal contamination of drinking water within peri-urban households, Lima, Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 699–704.

263. OyedejiO, OlutiolaPO, MoninuolaMA (2010) Microbiological quality of packaged drinking water brands marketed in Ibadan metropolis and Ile-Ife city in South Western Nigeria. Afr J Microbiol Res 4: 96–102.

264. PanF, MengK, ZhaoH (2011) Hygienic investigation on rural drinking water in Daxing District of Beijing. Occupation and Health 27: 2140–2141.

265. PantH, SarfarazS, IyengarL (2002) Evaluation of L-Cystine-amended H2S test for the detection of faecal pollution in potable water: comparison with standard multiple tube fermentation method. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 18: 317–320.

266. ParkerAH, YoultenR, DillonM, NussbaumerT, CarterRC, et al. (2010) An assessment of microbiological water quality of six water source categories in north-east Uganda. J Water Health 8: 550–560.

267. PathakSP, GopalK (1994) Antibiotic resistance and metal tolerance among Coliform sp. from drinking water in a hilly area. J Environ Biol 15: 139–139.

268. PathakSP, GopalK (2005) Efficiency of modified H2S test for detection of faecal contamination in water. Environ Monit Assess 108: 59–65.

269. PathakSP, GopalK (2008) Prevalence of bacterial contamination with antibiotic resistant and enterotoxigenic fecal coliforms in treated drinking water. J Toxicol Env Heal A 71: 427–433.

270. Patrick JM (2010) Recommendations for at-risk water supplies in Capiz Province, Philippines: using water source and community assessments. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

271. PhatthararangrongN, ChantratongN, JitsurongS (1998) Bacteriological quality of holywater from Thai temples in Songkhla Province, southern Thailand. J Med Assoc Thailand 81: 547–550.

272. PickeringAJ, DavisJ, WaltersSP, HorakHM, KeymerDP, et al. (2010) Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.

273. PinfoldJV, HoranNJ, WirojanagudW, MaraD (1993) The bacteriological quality of rainjar water in rural northeast Thailand. Water Research 27: 297–302.

274. PiranhaJM, PachecoA, GambaRC, MehnertDU, GarrafaP, et al. (2006) Faecal contamination (viral and bacteria) detection in groundwater used for drinking purposes in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Geomicrobiol J 23: 279–283.

275. PlatenburgRJPM, ZakiM (1993) Patterns of water quality in rural areas of Assyut Governorate, Egypt. Water Sci Technol 27: 55–55.

276. PotgieterN, BeckerPJ, EhlersMM (2009) Evaluation of the CDC safe water-storage intervention to improve the microbiological quality of point-of-use drinking water in rural communities in South Africa. Water SA 35: 505–516.

277. Potgieter N, Mudau LS, Maluleke FRS (2006) Microbiological quality of groundwater sources used by rural communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Kroiss H, Potgieter N, editors. London: IWA Publishing. 371–377 p.

278. Pradhan B (2004) Rural communities' perception on water quality and water borne disease: the case of Bungamati Village Development Committee in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Journal of Nepal Health Research Council 2.

279. PritchardM, MkandawireT, O′NeillJG (2007) Biological, chemical and physical drinking water quality from shallow wells in Malawi: case study of Blantyre, Chiradzulu and Mulanje. Phys Chem Earth 32: 1167–1177.

280. PritchardM, MkandawireT, O′NeillJG (2008) Assessment of groundwater quality in shallow wells within the southern districts of Malawi. Phys Chem Earth 33: 812–823.

281. Properzi F (2010) Rapid assessment of drinking-water quality in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan: country report of the pilot project implementation in 2004–2005. Geneva: WHO/UNICEF. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/RADWQ_Jordan.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

282. PutriLSE, KustantiN, YunitaE (2013) Effect of land use on ground water quality (a casestudy from Ciracas Sub District, East Jakarta, Indonesia). International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics 3: 33–36.

283. QiW (2007) Analysis of water quality of 186 samples from homemade wells of Yuci District of Jinzhong City in 2005. Preventive Medicine Tribune 13: 536–537.

284. QuickRE, KimuraA, ThevosA, TemboM, ShamputaI, et al. (2002) Diarrhea prevention through household-level water disinfection and safe storage in Zambia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 584–589.

285. RadaidehJ, Al-ZboonK, Al-HarahshehA, Al-AdamatR (2009) Quality assessment of harvested rainwater for domestic uses. Jordan Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences 2: 26–31.

286. RaineyRC, HardingAK (2005) Drinking water quality and solar disinfection: effectiveness in peri-urbanhouseholds in Nepal. J Water Health 3: 239–248.

287. RamtekePW (1995) Comparison of standard most probable number method with three alternate tests for detection of bacteriological water quality indicators. Environ Toxic Water 10: 173–178.

288. RamtekePW, BhattacharjeeJW, PathakSP, KalraN (1992) Evaluation of coliforms as indicators of water-quality in India. J Appl Bacteriol 72: 352–356.

289. RaoPNS, SureshK, BasavarjappaKG (2006) Bacteriological quallity of potable water in Davangere city. Journal of Communicable Diseases 38: 381–384.

290. RawatV, JhaSK, BagA, SinghaiM, RawatCMS (2012) The bacteriological quality of drinking water in Haldwani Block of Nainital District, Uttarakhand, India. J Water Health 10: 465–470.

291. RazzoliniMTP, SantosTFD, BastosVK (2010) Detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium cysts/oocysts in watersheds and drinking water sources in Brazil urban areas. J Water Health 8: 399–404.

292. ReddyPS, Ata-Ur-RasheedMD, SharmaS (2000) Microbiological analysis of bottled water. Indian J Med Microbiol 18: 72–76.

293. RejithPG, JeevaSP, VijithH, SowmyaM, HathaAAM (2009) Determination of groundwater quality index of a Highland Village of Kerala (India) using geographical information system. J Environ Health 71: 51–58.

294. RheinheimerDS, GonÇalvesCS, BortoluzziEC, PellegrinJBR, da SilvaJLS, et al. (2010) Qualidade de águas subterrâneas captadas em fontes em função da presença de proteção física e de sua posição na paisagem. Eng Agríc, Jaboticabal 30: 948–957.

295. RosaG, MillerL, ClasenT (2010) Microbiological effectiveness of disinfecting water by boiling in rural Guatemala. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 473–477.

296. RufenerS, MaeusezahlD, MoslerH-J, WeingartnerR (2010) Quality of drinking-water at source and point-of-consumption-drinking cup as a high potential recontamination risk: a field study in Bolivia. J Health Popul Nutr 28: 34–41.

297. Sampson M (2008) Water quality assessment of hand dug wells. Phnom Penh, Cambodia: Resource Development International.

298. SantanaA, SilvaSCFL, FaraniIO, AmaralCHR, MacedoVF (2003) Qualidade microbiológica de águas minerais. Ciênc Tecnol Aliment 23: 190–194.

299. SasikaranS, SritharanK, BalakumarS, ArasaratnamV (2012) Physical, chemical and microbial analysis of bottled drinking water. Ceylon Med J 57: 111–116.

300. Schaffner M (2002) Drinking water quality assessment and improvement in the Jhikhu Khola watershed. Bern: Universität Bern.

301. SemerjianLA (2011) Quality assessment of various bottled waters marketed in Lebanon. Environ Monit Asses 172: 275–285.

302. ShaheedA, OrgillJ, RatanaC, MontgomeryMA, JeulandA, et al. (2013) Water quality risks of “improved ” water sources: evidence from Cambodia. Trop Med Int Health 19: 186–194.

303. ShaikhSA, GulN, SultanaL (2008) Surveillance of drinking water of Karachi City: microbiological quality. Pakistan J Sci Ind R 51: 272–275.

304. Shakya (2004) An integrated drinking water quality assessment of rainwater harvesting jars and the related socio-economic conditions and gender issues of Chappani VDC-1, Palpa District. Available: http://www.aehms.org/pdf/Shakya%20&%20Sharma%20Proceedings%20FE.pdf. Accessed 30 December 2014.

305. SharAH, KaziYF, KanharNA, SoomroIH, ZiaSM, et al. (2010) Drinking water quality in Rohri City, Sindh, Pakistan. Afr J Biotechnol 9: 7102–7107.

306. SharAH, KaziYF, SoomroIH (2009) Antibiotic susceptibility of thermo-tolerant escherichia coli 2 isolated from drinking water of Khairpur City, Sindh, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 12: 648–652.

307. SharAH, KaziYF, ZardariM, SoomroIH (2007) Enumeration of total and faecal coliform bacteria in drinking water of Khairpur City, Sindh, Pakistan. Bangladesh J Microbiol 24: 163–165.

308. SharmaBK, SharmaLL, DurveVS (2008) Assessment of hand pump waters in three tribal dominated districts of southern Rajasthan, India. Journal of Environmental Science & Engineering 50: 133–136.

309. ShresthaS, MallaSS, AiharaY, KondoN, NishidaK (2013) Water Quality at Supply Source and Point of Use in the Kathmandu Valley. Journal of Water and Environment Technology 11: 331–340.

310. SilvaEF, SalgueiroAA (2001) Avaliacao da qualidade bacteriologica de agua de pocos na regio metropolitana de Recife - P. Higiene Alimentar. 15: 73–78.

311. SimangoC, DindiweJ, RukureG (1992) Bacterial-contamination of food and household stored drinking-water in a farmworker community in Zimbabwe. Cent Afr J Med 38: 143–149.

312. SimiyuS (2009) Assessment of spring water quality and quantity, and health implications in Tongaren division, Nzoia River catchment, Kenya. Afr J Ecol 47: 99–104.

313. Singh KP, Gaur A, Chandra H, Ray PK (1993) Drinking water quality status of Bankura District (West Bengal) as indicator of environmental pollution. Agrawal VP, Abidi SAH, Verma GP, Singh KP, editors. Muzaffarnagar (India): Society of Bioscience. 71–78 p.

314. SmithPG, SaboneTG (1994) Drinking water quality in the Gantsi District of Botswana. Int J Environ Heal R 4: 141–147.

315. SotoFRM, FonsecaYSK, AntunesDV, RissetoMR, AmakuM, et al. (2005) Microbiological evaluation of public water supply in schools of Ibiuna-SP: comparative study of water quality in conduit and post conduit. Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz 64: 128–131.

316. SotoFRM, FonsecaYSK, RissetoMR, de AzevedoSS, AriniMdLB, et al. (2006) Monitoring the quality of water from groundwater located in the rural public schools of the Ibiuna municipality/SP: microbiological and physicochemical parameters, and factors for environmental risk. Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz 65: 106–111.

317. Souza CoelhoMI, MendesES, Soares CruzMC, BezerraSS, Pinheiro e SilvaRP (2010) Evaluation of the microbiological quality of mineral water consumed in the metropolitan region of Recife, Pernambuco State. Acta Scientiarum Health Science 32: 1–8.

318. StolerJ, FinkG, WeeksJR, OtooRA, AmpofoJA, et al. (2012) When urban taps run dry: sachet water consumption and health effects in low income neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana. Health Place 18: 250–262.

319. Sutton S (2002) Community led improvements of rural drinking water supplies. Shewsbury, UK: SWL Consultants. Available: http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/249. Accessed 1 December 2013.

320. Sutton S, Butterworth J, Mekonta L (2012) A hidden resource: household-led rural water supply in Ethiopia. The Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Available: http://www.irc.nl/content/download/185695/850981/file/A%20hidden%20resource%20web_2012.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

321. TaborM, KibretM, AberaB (2011) Bacteriological and physicochemical quality of drinking water and hygiene-sanitation practices of the consumers in bahir dar city, ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Sci 21: 19–26.

322. Tadesse D, Desta A, Geyid A, Girma W, Fisseha S, et al.. (2010) Rapid assessment of drinking-water quality in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: country report of the pilot project implementation in 2004–2005. Geneva: WHO/UNICEF.

323. TambekarDH, HirulkarNB, WerulkarSA (2007) Multidrug resistance in Salmonella typhi isolated from drinking water in Amravati. Nature, Environment and Pollution Technology 6: 285–288.

324. TambekarDH, NewareBB (2012) Water quality index and multivariate analysis for groundwater quality assessment of villages of rural india. Science Research Reporter 2: 229–235.

325. Taylor H, Ebdon J, Phillips R, Chavula G, Kapudzama O (2012) Assessment of drinking water quality for low-cost water options in rural Malawi. Brighton, UK: University of Brighton.

326. TewariS, RamtekePW, GargSK (2003) Evaluation of simple microbiol tests for detection of fecal coliforms directly at 44.5 C. Environ Monit Asses 85: 191–198.

327. Tillet W (2007) An investigation into the impacts and challenges of implementing self supply in Eastern Uganda. Cranfield, UK: Cranfield University.

328. ToleMP (1997) Pollution of groundwater in the coastal Kwale District, Kenya. IAHS Publications Series of the Proceedings and Reports - Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences 240: 287–310.

329. TrevettAF, CarterRC, TyrrelSF (2004) Water quality deterioration: a study of household drinking water quality in rural Honduras. Int J Environ Heal R 14: 273–283.

330. Uhl VW, Daw A, Baron JA (2012) How a city gets its drinking water a case study - capital city of Monrovia, Liberia. Lambertville (New Jersey): UHL & Associates, Inc.

331. VaccariM, CollivignarelliC, TharnpoophasiamP, VitaliF (2010) Wells sanitary inspection and water quality monitoring in Ban Nam Khem (Thailand) 30 months after 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Environ Monit Assess 161: 123–133.

332. ValenteJPS, LopesCAM, CaminhasAMT, HoracioA (1999) Bacteriological evaluation of the water supplies of the Eldorado municipality — Vale do Ribeira (SP). Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz 58: 9–13.

333. van GeenA, AhmedKM, AkitaY, AlamMJ, CulliganPJ, et al. (2011) Fecal contamination of shallow tubewells in Bangladesh inversely related to arsenic. Environ Sci Technol 45: 1199–1205.

334. VandersliceJ, BriscoeJ (1993) All coliforms are not created equal - a comparison of the effects of water source and in-house water contamination on infantile diarrheal disease. Water Resour Res 29: 1983–1995.

335. VargheseJ, JayaDS (2008) Drinking water quality assessment of rain water harvested in ferrocement tanks in Alappuzha District, Kerala (India). Journal of Environmental Science & Engineering 50: 115–120.

336. VidalJ, ConsuegraA, GomescaseresL, MarrugoJ (2009) Assessment of the microbiological quality of water packed in bags manufactured in Sincelejo-Colombia. Revista Mvz Cordoba 14: 1736–1744.

337. VollaardAM, AliS, SmetJ, van AstenH, WidjajaS, et al. (2005) A survey of the supply and bacteriologic quality of drinking water and sanitation in Jakarta, Indonesia. SE Asian J Trop Med 36: 1552–1561.

338. WarnerNR, LevyJ, HarppK, FarruggiaF (2008) Drinking water quality in Nepal's Kathmandu Valley: a survey and assessment of selected controlling site characteristics. Hydrogeology Journal 16: 321–334.

339. WattsR (1992) Low-cost water supplies and their contribution to health. Afr Health 15: 10–11.

340. WelchP, DavidJ, ClarkeW, TrinidadeA, PennerD, et al. (2000) Microbial quality of water in rural communities of Trinidad. Rev Panam Salud Publica 8: 172–180.

341. WilliamsMA, MoranP, NhandaraC, HoveI, CharimariL, et al. (1997) Contamination of traditional drinking water sources during a period of extreme drought in the Zvimba communal lands, Zimbabwe. Cent Afr J Med 43: 316–321.

342. WrightJ, CroninA, Okotto-OkottoJ, YangH, PedleyS, et al. (2013) A spatial analysis of pit latrine density and groundwater source contamination. Environ Monit Asses 185: 4261–4272.

343. WuZ (2008) Drinking water test of rural centralized water supply in Dianjiang. Prev Med 46: 123–125.

344. XavierRP, SiqueiraLP, Chaves VitalFA, Soares RochaFJ, IrmaoJI, et al. (2011) Microbiological quality of drinking rainwater in the inland region of Pajeu, Pernambuco, northeast Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo 53: 121–124.

345. YaoY-B, LiQ-J, LiuX-Z (2012) Health survey of rural drinking water in Jiangxi Province from 2008 to 2010. Journal of Environment and Health 29: 340–342.

346. YasinN, ShahN, KhanJ, SabaNU, ul IslamZ (2012) Bacteriological status of drinking water in the peri-urban areas of Rawalpindi and Islamabad-Pakistan. Afr J Microbiol Res 6: 169–175.

347. YassinMM, Abu AmrSS, Al-NajarHM (2006) Assessment of microbiological water quality and its relation to human health in Gaza Governorate, Gaza Strip. Public Health 120: 1177–1187.

348. YongsiHBN (2010) Suffering for water, suffering from water: access to drinking-water and associated health risks in Cameroon. J Health Popul Nutr 28: 424–435.

349. ZeenatA, HathaAAM, ViolaL, VipraK (2009) Bacteriological quality and risk assessment of the imported and domestic bottled mineral water sold in Fiji. J Water Health 7: 642–649.

350. ZeilhoferP, ZeilhoferLV, HardoimEL, LimaZM, OliveiraCS (2007) GIS applications for mapping and spatial modeling of urban-use water quality: a case study in District of Cuiaba, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica 23: 875–884.

351. ZhangXD, GeZX, XiangJH, ZhuMF, ZhangJF, et al. (2012) Water quality in automatic water vending machines in Pudong New Area: an evaluation using drinking water quality index. Huanjing yu Zhiye Yixue 29: 231–233.

352. ZuinV, OrtolanoL, AlvarinhoM, RusselK, TheboA, et al. (2011) Water supply services for Africa's urban poor: the role of resale. J Water Health 9: 773–784.

353. Elala D, Labhasetwar P, Tyrrel SF (2011) Deterioration in water quality from supply chain to household and appropriate storage in the context of intermittent water supplies. Wa Sci Technol 11.

354. ShaheedA, OrgillJ, MontgomeryMA, JeulandMA, BrownJ (2014) Why “improved” water sources are not always safe. Bull World Health Organ 92: 283–289.

355. HrudeySE, HrudeyEJ, PollardSJT (2006) Risk management for assuring safe drinking water. Environ Int 32(8): 948–957.

356. FosterT (2013) Predictors of Sustainability for Community-Managed Handpumps in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda. Environ Sci Technol 47: 12037–12046.

357. GunnarsdottirMJ, GardarssonSM, ElliottM, SigmundsdottirG, BartramJ (2012) Benefits of water safety plans: microbiology, compliance, and public health. Environ Sci Technol 46: 7782–7789.

358. PsutkaR, PeletzR, MicheloS, KellyP, ClasenT (2011) Assessing the microbiological performance and potential cost of boiling drinking water in urban Zambia. Environ Sci Technol 45: 6095–6101.

359. BlumD, HuttlySRA, OkoroJI, AkujobiC, KirkwoodBR (1987) Bacteriological quality of traditional water sources in North-Eastern Imo State, Nigeria. Epidemiol Infect 99: 429–437.

360. WrightRC (1986) Seasonality of bacterial quality of water in a tropical developing country (Sierra Leone). J Hygiene-Camb 96: 75–82.

361. Kayser GL, Moriarty P, Fonseca C, Bartram J (2013) Drinking water service delivery frameworks for monitoring evaluation, policy and planning: a review. Int J Environ Res Public Health Vol 10, No 10, p 4812–4835.

362. BartramJ (2008) Improving on haves and have-nots. Nature 452: 283–284.

363. de Albuquerque C, Roaf V (2012) On the right track: good practices in realising the rights to water and sanitation. Geneva: OHCRH.

364. YangH, BainR, BartramJ, GundryS, PedleyS, et al. (2013) Water safety and inequality in access to drinking-water between rich and poor households. Environ Sci Technol 47: 1222–1230.

365. RiveraSC, HazenTC, ToranzosGA (1988) Isolation of fecal coliforms from pristine sites in a tropical rain forest. Appl Environ Microbiol 54: 513–517.

366. AyoobS, GuptaAK (2006) Fluoride in drinking water: a review on the status and stress effects. Crit Rev Env Sci Tec 36: 433–487.

367. AminiM, MuellerK, AbbaspourKC, RosenbergT, AfyuniM, et al. (2008) Statistical modeling of global geogenic fluoride contamination in groundwaters. Environ Sci Technol 42: 3662–3668.

368. AminiM, AbbaspourKC, BergM, WinkelL, HugSJ, et al. (2008) Statistical modeling of global geogenic arsenic contamination in groundwater. Environ Sci Technol 42: 3669–3675.

369. RehfuessEA, BruceN, BartramJK (2009) More health for your buck: health sector functions to secure environmental health. Bull World Health Organ 87: 880–882.

370. HunterPR, MacDonaldAM, CarterRC (2010) Water Supply and Health. PLoS Med 7: e1000361.

371. Hutton G (2012) Global costs and benefits of drinking-water supply and sanitation interventions to reach the MDG target and universal coverage. Geneva: WHO. WHO/HSE/WSH/12.01.

372. HowardG, BartramJ (2005) Effective water supply surveillance in urban areas of developing countries. J Water Health 3: 31–43.

373. BradleyDJ, BartramJK (2013) Domestic water and sanitation as water security: monitoring, concepts and strategy. Philos T Roy Soc A 371: 20120420.

374. WHO (2008) Essential environmental health standards in health care. Geneva: WHO.

375. Ministry of Health Uganda, Macro International Inc. (2008) Uganda Service Provision Assessment Survey 2007. Uganda; Calverton (Maryland): Ministry of Health; Macro International Inc.

376. Ministry of Health Rwanda, Macro International Inc. (2008) Rwanda Service Provision Assessment Survey 2007. Rwanda; Calverton (Maryland): NIS, MOH; Macro International Inc.

377. PeletzR, MahinT, ElliottM, HarrisMS, ChanKS, et al. (2013) Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to improve health among people living with HIV/AIDS: a systematic review. AIDS 27: 2593–2601.

378. BenovaL, CummingO, CampbellOM (2014) Systematic review and meta-analysis: association between water and sanitation environment and maternal mortality. Trop Med Int Health 19: 368–387.

379. LimSS, VosT, FlaxmanAD, DanaeiG, ShibuyaK, et al. (2012) A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380: 2224–2260.

380. YangH, WrightJA, GundrySW (2012) Water accessibility: boost water safety in rural China. Nature 484: 318.

381. WHO/UNICEF (2012) Review: sampling issues in tools for water quality monitoring. Geneva and New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme. Available: http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/Report-of-Review-WQ-sampling-Geneva-18-19June2012_final.pdf. Accessed 1 December 2013.

382. JimenezA, Perez-FoguetA (2008) Improving water access indicators in developing countries: a proposal using water point mapping methodology. Wa Sci Technol 8: 279–287.

383. BrownJ, ClasenT (2012) High adherence is necessary to realize health gains from water quality interventions. PLoS One 7: e36735.

384. HunterPR, Zmirou-NavierD, HartemannP (2009) Estimating the impact on health of poor reliability of drinking water interventions in developing countries. Sci Total Environ 407: 2621–2624.