Facial features and unethical behavior – Doped athletes show higher facial width-to-height ratios than non-doping sanctioned athletes
Autoři:
Bjoern Krenn aff001; Callum Buehler aff001
Působiště autorů:
Department of Sports Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
aff001
Vyšlo v časopise:
PLoS ONE 14(10)
Kategorie:
Research Article
prolekare.web.journal.doi_sk:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224472
Souhrn
Past research has emphasized the role of facial structures in predicting social behavior. In particular the facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) was found to be a reliable predictor for antisocial and unethical behavior. The current study was aimed at examining this association in the field of sports: FWHRs of 146 doping sanctioned athletes in athletics (37 male/38 female) and weightlifting (44 male/27 female) were compared to the fWHRs of randomly chosen non-doping sanctioned athletes of the Top Ten at the World Championship 2017 and Olympic Games 2016 in both sports (146 athletes). The results showed that doping sanctioned athletes due to the use of anabolic steroids had larger fWHRs than non-doping sanctioned athletes. However, doping sanctioned athletes due to other doping rule violations than the use of anabolic steroids, did not show this effect. The study provides empirical evidence for the relation between fWHR and unethical behavior in a real-world setting and contributes to the discussion about fWHR’s biological origin, emphasizing the role of anabolic steroids. A mutual interaction between fWHR and doping behavior is discussed, at which a larger fWHR might signify a higher tendency to behave unethically, whereas the consequential intake of anabolic steroids might also shape individuals’ faces.
Klíčová slova:
Behavior – Analysis of variance – Face – Steroids – Testosterone – Sports – Running – Antisocial behavior
Zdroje
1. Sell A., Cosmides L., Tooby J., Sznycer D., von Rueden C. & Gurven M. 2009 Human adaptations for the visual assessment of strength and fighting ability from the body and face. Proc. R. Soc. B 276, 575–584. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2008.1177 18945661
2. Mason M.F., Cloutier J. & Macrae C.N. 2006 On construing others: Category and stereotype activation from facial cues. Soc. Cogn. 24, 540–562. doi: 10.1521/soco.2006.24.5.540
3. Drummond P.D. & Quah S.H. 2001 The effect of expressing anger on cardiovascular reactivity and facial blood flow in Chinese and Caucasians. Psychophysiology 38, 190–196. doi: 10.1111/1469-8986.3820190 11347864
4. Hehman E., Leitner J.B., Deegan M.P. & Gaertner S.L. 2015 Picking teams: When dominant facial structure is preferred. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 59, 51–59. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2015.03.007
5. Weston E.M., Friday A.E. & Liò P. 2007 Biometric evidence that sexual selection has shaped the hominin face. PLoS ONE 2, e710. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000710 17684556
6. MacDonell E.T., Geniole S.N. & McCormick C.M. 2018 Force versus fury: Sex differences in the relationships among physical and psychological threat potential, the facial width-to-height ratio, and judgements of aggressiveness. Aggress. Behav. 44, 512–523. doi: 10.1002/ab.21771 29878380
7. Geniole S.N., Molnar D.S., Carré J.M. & McCormick C.M. 2014 The facial width-to-height ratio shares stronger links with judgments of aggression than with judgments of trustworthiness. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 40, 1526–1541. doi: 10.1037/a0036732 24820443
8. Mileva V.R., Cowan M.L., Cobey K.D., Knowles K.K. & Little A.C. 2014 In the face of dominance: Self-perceived and other-perceived dominance are positively associated with facial-width-to-height ratio in men. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 69, 115–118. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.05.019
9. Lefevre C.E., Etchells P.J., Howell E.C., Clark A.P. & Penton-Voak I.S. 2014 Facial width-to-height ratio predicts self-reported dominance and aggression in males and females, but a measure of masculinity does not. Biol. Lett. 10, 20140729. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2014.0729 25339656
10. Haselhuhn M.P., Ormiston M.E. & Wong E.M. 2015 Men’s facial width-to-height ratio predicts aggression: A meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 10, e0122637. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122637 25849992
11. Geniole S.N., Keyes A.E., Carré J.M. & McCormick C.M. 2014 Fearless dominance mediates the relationship between the facial width-to-height ratio and willingness to cheat. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 57, 59–64. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2013.09.023
12. Stirrat M. & Perrett D.I. 2010 Valid facial cues to cooperation and trust. Psychol. Sci. 21, 349–354. doi: 10.1177/0956797610362647 20424067
13. Zilioli S., Sell A.N., Stirrat M., Jagore J., Vickerman W. & Watson N.V. 2015 Face of a fighter: Bizygomatic width as a cue of formidability. Aggress. Behav. 41, 322–330. doi: 10.1002/ab.21544 24910133
14. Lewis G.J., Lefevre C.E. & Bates T.C. 2012 Facial width-to-height ratio predicts achievement drive in US presidents. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 52, 855–857. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.030
15. Carré J.M. & McCormick C.M. 2008 In your face: facial metrics predict aggressive behaviour in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. Proc. R. Soc. B 275, 2651–2656. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0873 18713717
16. Geniole S.N., Denson T.F., Dixson B.J., Carré J.M. & McCormick C.M. 2015 Evidence from meta-analyses of the facial width-to-height ratio as an evolved cue of threat. PLoS ONE 10, e0132726. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132726 26181579
17. Xie Z., Page L. & Hardy B. 2017 Investigating Gender Differences under Time Pressure in Financial Risk Taking. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 11, 246. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00246 29326566
18. Tsujimura H. & Banissy M.J. 2013 Human face structure correlates with professional baseball performance: insights from professional Japanese baseball players. Biol. Lett. 9, 20130140. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2013.0140 23576779
19. Welker K.M., Goetz S.M.M. & Carré J.M. 2015 Perceived and experimentally manipulated status moderates the relationship between facial structure and risk-taking. Evol. Hum. Behav. 36, 423–429. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2015.03.006
20. Zhang W., Hahn A.C., Cai Z., Lee A.J., Holzleitner I.J., DeBruine L.M. & Jones B.C. 2018 No evidence that facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) is associated with women's sexual desire. PLoS ONE 13, e0200308. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200308 30020967
21. Kosinski M. 2017 Facial width-to-height ratio does not predict self-reported behavioral tendencies. Psychol. Sci. 28, 1675–1682. doi: 10.1177/0956797617716929 28976810
22. Kramer R.S.S. 2015 Facial width-to-height ratio in a large sample of Commonwealth games athletes. Evol. Psychol. 13, 197–209. doi: 10.1177/147470491501300112 25714799
23. Efferson C. & Vogt S. 2013 Viewing men's faces does not lead to accurate predictions of trustworthiness. Sci. Rep. 3, 1047. doi: 10.1038/srep01047 23308340
24. Hodges-Simeon C.R., Hanson Sobraske K.N., Samore T., Gurven M. & Gaulin S.J.C. 2016 Facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) is not associated with adolescent testosterone levels. PLoS ONE 11, e0153083. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153083 27078636
25. Eisenbruch A.B., Lukaszewski A.W., Simmons Z.L., Arai S. & Roney J.R. 2018 Why the wide face? Androgen receptor gene polymorphism does not predict men’s facial Width-to-Height Ratio. Adapt. Human Behav. Physiol. 4, 138–151. doi: 10.1007/s40750-017-0084-x
26. Bird B.M., Cid Jofré V.S., Geniole S.N., Welker K.M., Zilioli S., Maestripieri D., Arnocky S. & Carré J.M. 2016 Does the facial width-to-height ratio map onto variability in men's testosterone concentrations? Evol. Hum. Behav. 37, 392–398. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.03.004
27. Whitehouse A.J.O., Gilani S.Z., Shafait F., Mian A., Tan D.W., Maybery M.T., Keelan J.A., Hart R., Handelsman D.J., Goonawardene M., et al. 2015 Prenatal testosterone exposure is related to sexually dimorphic facial morphology in adulthood. Proc. R. Soc. B 282, 20151351. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2015.1351 26400740
28. Lefevre C.E., Lewis G.J., Perrett D.I. & Penke L. 2013 Telling facial metrics: facial width is associated with testosterone levels in men. Evol. Hum. Behav. 34, 273–279. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.03.005
29. Welker K.M., Bird B.M. & Arnocky S. 2016 Commentary: Facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) is not associated with adolescent testosterone levels. Front. Psychol. 7, 1745. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01745 27917130
30. Haselhuhn M.P. & Wong E.M. 2012 Bad to the bone: facial structure predicts unethical behaviour. Proc. R. Soc. B 279, 571–576. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1193 21733897
31. Hodge K., Hargreaves E., Gerrard D. & Lonsdale C. 2013 Psychological mechanisms underlying doping attitudes in sport: Motivation and moral disengagement. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 35, 419–32. doi: 10.1123/jsep.35.4.419 23966451
32. World Anti Doping Agency (WADA), 2016 Anti-Doping Rule Violations (ADRVs) Report. (Montreal, WADA).
33. Barkoukis V., Lazuras L., Tsorbatzoudis H. & Rodafinos A. 2011 Motivational and sportspersonship profiles of elite athletes in relation to doping behavior. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 12:205–212. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.10.003
34. Donahue E.G., Miquelon P., Valois P., Goulet C., Buist A. & Vallerand R.A. 2006 A motivational model of performance-enhancing substance use in elite athletes. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 28, 511–520. doi: 10.1123/jsep.28.4.511
35. Gómez-Valdés J., Hünemeier T., Quinto-Sánchez M., Paschetta C., de Azevedo S., González M.F., et al. 2013 Lack of support for the association between facial shape and aggression: A reappraisal based on a worldwide population genetics perspective. PLoS ONE. 8, e52317. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052317 23326328
36. Kramer R.S.S., Jones A.L. & Ward R. 2012 A lack of sexual dimorphism in width-to-height ratio in white European faces using 2D photographs, 3D scans, and anthropometry. PLoS ONE 7, e42705. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042705 22880088
37. Verdonck A., Gaethofs M., Carels C. & de Zegher F. 1999 Effect of low-dose testosterone treatment on craniofacial growth in boys with delayed puberty. Eur. J. Orthod. 21, 137–143. doi: 10.1093/ejo/21.2.137 10327737
38. Mackenzie S. & Wilkinson C. 2017 Morphological and morphometric changes in the faces of female-to-male (FtM) transsexual people. Int. J. Transgend. 18, 172–181. doi: 10.1080/15532739.2017.1279581
39. Fechner P.Y. 2003 The biology of puberty: New developments in sex differences. In Gender Differences at Puberty (ed. Hayward C.), pp. 17–28. Cambridge University Press.
40. Taieb J., Mathian B., Millot F., Patricot M.-C., Mathieu E., Queyrel N., Lacroix I., Somma-Delpero C. & Boudou P. 2003 Testosterone measured by 10 immunoassays and by isotope-dilution gas chromatography–mass spectrometry in sera from 116 Men, Women, and Children. Clin. Chem. 49, 1381–1395. doi: 10.1373/49.8.1381 12881456
41. Marečková K., Weinbrand Z., Chakravarty M.M., Lawrence C., Aleong R., Leonard G., Perron M., Pike G.B., Richer L., Veillette S., et al. 2011 Testosterone-mediated sex differences in the face shape during adolescence: Subjective impressions and objective features. Horm. Behav. 60, 681–690. doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.09.004 21983236
42. Mazur A., Susman J., E. & Edelbrock S. 1997 Sex difference in testosterone response to a video game contest. Evol. Hum. Behav. 18, 317–326. doi: 10.1016/S1090-5138(97)00013-5
43. Gebhardt A. & Pancherz H. 2003 The effect of anabolic steroids on mandibular growth. Am. J. Orthod. Dentofacial Orthop. 123, 435–440. doi: 10.1067/mod.2003.88 12695771
44. Noda K., Chang H.-P., Takahashi I., Kinoshita Z. & Kawamoto T. 1994 Effects of the anabolic steroid nandrolone phenylpropionate on craniofacial growth in rats. J. Morphol. 220, 25–33. doi: 10.1002/jmor.1052200104 8021946
45. Barrett R.L. & Harris E.F. 1993 Anabolic steroids and craniofacial growth in the rat. Angle Orthod. 63, 289–298. doi: 10.1043/0003-3219(1993)063<0289:ASACGI>2.0.CO;2 8297054
46. Jenkins R., White D., Van Montfort X. & Mike Burton A. 2011 Variability in photos of the same face. Cognition 121, 313–323. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.001 21890124
47. Kramer R.S.S. 2016 Within-person variability in men’s facial width-to-height ratio. PeerJ 4, e1801. doi: 10.7717/peerj.1801 26989634
48. Hehman E., Leitner J.B. & Gaertner S.L. 2013 Enhancing static facial features increases intimidation. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 49, 747–754. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.02.015
49. Noyes E. & Jenkins R. 2017 Camera-to-subject distance affects face configuration and perceived identity. Cognition 165, 97–104. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2017.05.012 28527319
50. World Anti Doping Agency (WADA), 2018 The world anti-doping code. International standard. Prohibited List January 2018. (Montreal, WADA).
51. Deaner R.O., Goetz S.M.M., Shattuck K. & Schnotala T. 2012 Body weight, not facial width-to-height ratio, predicts aggression in pro hockey players. J. Res. Pers. 46, 235–238. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2012.01.005
Článok vyšiel v časopise
PLOS One
2019 Číslo 10
- Metamizol jako analgetikum první volby: kdy, pro koho, jak a proč?
- Nejasný stín na plicích – kazuistika
- Masturbační chování žen v ČR − dotazníková studie
- Úspěšná resuscitativní thorakotomie v přednemocniční neodkladné péči
- Fixní kombinace paracetamol/kodein nabízí synergické analgetické účinky
Najčítanejšie v tomto čísle
- Correction: Low dose naltrexone: Effects on medication in rheumatoid and seropositive arthritis. A nationwide register-based controlled quasi-experimental before-after study
- Combining CDK4/6 inhibitors ribociclib and palbociclib with cytotoxic agents does not enhance cytotoxicity
- Experimentally validated simulation of coronary stents considering different dogboning ratios and asymmetric stent positioning
- Prevalence of pectus excavatum (PE), pectus carinatum (PC), tracheal hypoplasia, thoracic spine deformities and lateral heart displacement in thoracic radiographs of screw-tailed brachycephalic dogs